"Ad Hoc" is actually a Latin phrase that means "for this purpose." It is often used to describe solutions that are developed on-the-fly for a specific purpose. In computer networking, an ad hoc network refers to a network connection established for a single session and does not require a router or a wireless base station.
For example, if you need to transfer a file to your friend's laptop, you might create an ad hoc network between your computer and his laptop to transfer the file. This may be done using an Ethernet crossover cable, or the computers' wireless cards to communicate with each other. If you need to share files with more than one computer, you could set up a mutli-hop ad hoc network, which can transfer data over multiple nodes.
Basically, an ad hoc network is a temporary network connection created for a specific purpose (such as transferring data from one computer to another). If the network is set up for a longer period of time, it is just a plain old local area network (LAN).
Wireless ad hoc networks can be further classified by their application:
* mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs)
* wireless mesh networks
* wireless sensor networks.
MANETs
___________
In the next generation of wireless communication systems, there will be a need for the rapid deployment of independent mobile users. Significant examples include establishing survivable, efficient, dynamic communication for emergency/rescue operations, disaster relief efforts, and military networks. Such network scenarios cannot rely on centralized and organized connectivity, and can be conceived as applications of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. A MANET is an autonomous collection of mobile users that communicate over relatively bandwidth constrained wireless links. Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change rapidly and unpredictably over time. The network is decentralized, where all network activity including discovering the topology and delivering messages must be executed by the nodes themselves, i.e., routing functionality will be incorporated into mobile nodes.
The set of applications for MANETs is diverse, ranging from small, static networks that are constrained by power sources, to large-scale, mobile, highly dynamic networks. The design of network protocols for these networks is a complex issue. Regardless of the application, MANETs need efficient distributed algorithms to determine network organization, link scheduling, and routing. However, determining viable routing paths and delivering messages in a decentralized environment where network topology fluctuates is not a well-defined problem. While the shortest path (based on a given cost function) from a source to a destination in a static network is usually the optimal route, this idea is not easily extended to MANETs. Factors such as variable wireless link quality, propagation path loss, fading, multiuser interference, power expended, and topological changes, become relevant issues. The network should be able to adaptively alter the routing paths to alleviate any of these effects. Moreover, in a military environment, preservation of security, latency, reliability, intentional jamming, and recovery from failure are significant concerns. Military networks are designed to maintain a low probability of intercept and/or a low probability of detection. Hence, nodes prefer to radiate as little power as necessary and transmit as infrequently as possible, thus decreasing the probability of detection or interception. A lapse in any of these requirements may degrade the performance and dependability of the network.
WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
A wireless ad hoc sensor network consists of a number of sensors spread across a geographical area. Each sensor has wireless communication capability and some level of intelligence for signal processing and networking of the data. Some examples of wireless ad hoc sensor networks are the following:
1. Military sensor networks to detect and gain as much information as possible about enemy movements, explosions, and other phenomena of interest.
2. Sensor networks to detect and characterize Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE) attacks and material.
3. Sensor networks to detect and monitor environmental changes in plains, forests, oceans, etc.
4. Wireless traffic sensor networks to monitor vehicle traffic on highways or in congested parts of a city.
5. Wireless surveillance sensor networks for providing security in shopping malls, parking garages, and other facilities.
6. Wireless parking lot sensor networks to determine which spots are occupied and which are free.
The above list suggests that wireless ad hoc sensor networks offer certain capabilities and enhancements in operational efficiency in civilian applications as well as assist in the national effort to increase alertness to potential terrorist threats.
Two ways to classify wireless ad hoc sensor networks are whether or not the nodes are individually addressable, and whether the data in the network is aggregated. The sensor nodes in a parking lot network should be individually addressable, so that one can determine the locations of all the free spaces. This application shows that it may be necessary to broadcast a message to all the nodes in the network. If one wants to determine the temperature in a corner of a room, then addressability may not be so important. Any node in the given region can respond. The ability of the sensor network to aggregate the data collected can greatly reduce the number of messages that need to be transmitted across the network. This function of data fusion is discussed more below.
The basic goals of a wireless ad hoc sensor network generally depend upon the application, but the following tasks are common to many networks:
1. Determine the value of some parameter at a given location: In an environmental network, one might one to know the temperature, atmospheric pressure, amount of sunlight, and the relative humidity at a number of locations. This example shows that a given sensor node may be connected to different types of sensors, each with a different sampling rate and range of allowed values.
2. Detect the occurrence of events of interest and estimate parameters of the detected event or events: In the traffic sensor network, one would like to detect a vehicle moving through an intersection and estimate the speed and direction of the vehicle.
3. Classify a detected object: Is a vehicle in a traffic sensor network a car, a mini-van, a light truck, a bus, etc.
4. Track an object: In a military sensor network, track an enemy tank as it moves through the geographic area covered by the network.
In these four tasks, an important requirement of the sensor network is that the required data be disseminated to the proper end users. In some cases, there are fairly strict time requirements on this communication. For example, the detection of an intruder in a surveillance network should be immediately communicated to the police so that action can be taken.
Wireless ad hoc sensor network requirements include the following:
1. Large number of (mostly stationary) sensors: Aside from the deployment of sensors on the ocean surface or the use of mobile, unmanned, robotic sensors in military operations, most nodes in a smart sensor network are stationary. Networks of 10,000 or even 100,000 nodes are envisioned, so scalability is a major issue.
2. Low energy use: Since in many applications the sensor nodes will be placed in a remote area, service of a node may not be possible. In this case, the lifetime of a node may be determined by the battery life, thereby requiring the minimization of energy expenditure.
3. Network self-organization: Given the large number of nodes and their potential placement in hostile locations, it is essential that the network be able to self-organize; manual configuration is not feasible. Moreover, nodes may fail (either from lack of energy or from physical destruction), and new nodes may join the network. Therefore, the network must be able to periodically reconfigure itself so that it can continue to function. Individual nodes may become disconnected from the rest of the network, but a high degree of connectivity must be maintained.
4. Collaborative signal processing: Yet another factor that distinguishes these networks from MANETs is that the end goal is detection/estimation of some events of interest, and not just communications. To improve the detection/estimation performance, it is often quite useful to fuse data from multiple sensors. This data fusion requires the transmission of data and control messages, and so it may put constraints on the network architecture.
5. Querying ability: A user may want to query an individual node or a group of nodes for information collected in the region. Depending on the amount of data fusion performed, it may not be feasible to transmit a large amount of the data across the network. Instead, various local sink nodes will collect the data from a given area and create summary messages. A query may be directed to the sink node nearest to the desired location.
Sensor types and system architecture:
With the coming availability of low cost, short range radios along with advances in wireless networking, it is expected that wireless ad hoc sensor networks will become commonly deployed. In these networks, each node may be equipped with a variety of sensors, such as acoustic, seismic, infrared, still/motion videocamera, etc. These nodes may be organized in clusters such that a locally occurring event can be detected by most of, if not all, the nodes in a cluster. Each node may have sufficient processing power to make a decision, and it will be able to broadcast this decision to the other nodes in the cluster. One node may act as the cluster master, and it may also contain a longer range radio using a protocol such as IEEE 802.11 or Bluetooth.
Thursday, August 26, 2010
Wednesday, August 25, 2010
IMPORTANT WEBSITES
Useful Websites List
Legal Affairs.
www.cyberlawindia.com
www.india-laws.com
www.lawinfo..com
www.lawsinindia.com
www.vakilno1.com
www.indiapropertylaws.com
www.courtsjudgements.com
www.lawinc.com
www.icj-cij.org
www.legiz.com
www.naavi.com
------------------------------------------
Contests.
www.hungama.com
www.ticklewit.com
www.contests2win.com
www.lycosasia.com
www.contestguide.com
www.2000photocontests.com
www.supercontest.com
www.huronline.com
www.beaniemania..com
www.contestworld.com
www.bluestreakcontest.com
www.artcontest.com
www.indiainfoline.com
www.computerdrawing.com
www.sweepstakesonline.com
www.guests.com
www.poetrytodayonline.com
www.imca.com
www.bbbonline.com
www.funnypages.com
www.dreamscape.com
------------------------------------------
Cricket.
www.total-cricket.com
www.cricinfo.com
www.cricket.org
www.go4cricket.com
www.khel.com
www.cricket.org
www.cricketnyou.com
www.clickcricket.com
www.thatscricket.com
www.magiccricket.com
www.cricketline.com
www.yehhaicricket.com
www.cricketnext.com
------------------------------------------
Finance.
www.finsights.com
www.walle[how wude!]ch.com
www.moneycontrol.com
www.myiris.com
www.stockmarkit.com
www.economywatch.com
www.equitymaster.com
www.indiainfoline.com
www.sharebazaar.com
www.kotakstreet.com
www.5paisa.com
www.indiabulls.com
www.dhan.com
www.starmarkettips.com
www.paisapower.com
www.nyse.com
www.nasdaq.com
www.nse-india.com
www..sebi.com
www.khel.com
www.pcquote.com
www.stockmaster.com
www.xe.net/currency
www.motilaloswal.com
www.mutualfundsindia.com
www.rrfinance.com
www.sharekhan.com
www.rupeesaver.com
www.ingsavingtrust.com
www.icicidirect.com
www.unittrustofindia.com
www.licmutual.com
www.bajajcapital.com
www.kotakmahindra.com
www.ebizbirlaglobal.com
www..creditcapitalamc.com
-----------------------------------------------
E-Greetings.
www.123greetings.com
www.3greetings.com
www.greetings.jagran.com
www.clubgreetings.com
www..archiesonline.com
www.hallmark.com
www.cardbymail.com
www.dgreetings.com
www.bluemountain.com
www.castlemountain.com
www.bharathgreetings.com
----------------------------------------------
Education.
www.egurucool.com
www.schoolcircle.com
www.netvarsity.com
www.onlinevarsity.com
www.shiksha.com
www.buckleyourshoe.com
www.freeskills.com
www.smartforce.com/smb
www.examsonline.com
www.competitionmaster.com
www.mastertutor.com
www.zeelearn.com
www.netprotraining.com
www.careerlauncher.com
www.classteacher.com
www.gurukulonline.com
www.iln.net
www.esaras.com
www.lycoszone.com
www.pinkmonkey.com
www.schoolsofcalcutta.com
www.entranceguru.com
www.pentafour.com
www.Qsupport.com
www.intelsyseducation.com
www.niit.com
www.aptech.com
www.institute.net
www.indiaedu.com
www.educationbangalore.com
www.upsc.gov.in
www.ed.gov
www.educationworld.com
www.nativechild.com
www.educationtimes.com
www.chemketaonline.com
www.getsmartonline.com
www.fastboot.scom
www.batchmates.com
www.fluentzy.com
www.15-21.com
www.teenfunda.com
www.sparkinglearning.com
www.zipahead.com
www.wiltiky.com
www.bostonci.com
www.sophiaopp.org
www.mindzones.com
www.kaplancollege.com
www.tutor4computer.com
www.talentduniya.com
www.worlduonline.com
www.englishpractice.com
www.barkeley.edu
www.utexas.edu
www.mit.edu
www.umich.edu
www.uiuc.edu
www..upenn.edu
www.wisc.edu
www.harvard.edu
www.cornell.edu
www.unc.edu
www.education-world.com
www.novell.com
www.gnacademy.org
www.shawguides.com
www.ias.org
www.apple.com
www.classroom.net
www.allindia.com
www.funbrain.com
www.petersons.com
www.educationplanet.com
www.discoveryschool.com
www.eduplace.com.com
www.free-ed.net
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Jobs.
www.naukri.com
www.3p-lobsearch.com
www.career1000.com
www.careerindia.com
www.employindia.com
www.indianjobs.com
www.placementindia.com
www.placementpoint..com
www.timesjobsandcareers.com
www.winjobs.com
www.redforwomen.com
www.go4careers.com
www.indiaventures.com
www.indiagateway.com
www.jobsahead.com
www.alltimejobs.com
www.careerage.com
www.headhunters.net
www.monster.com
www.careers.org
www.eresumes.com
www.careerxroads.com
www.nationjob.com
www.jobweb.com
www.aidnjobs.com
www.careerforyou.com
www.careergun.com
www.go4careers.com
www.lobs.itspace.com
www.joboptions.com
www.careermosaic.com
www.jobconnection.com
www.bestjobsusa.com
www.careerpath.com
www.americasemployers.com
www.job-interview.net
www.geojobs.bizland.com
www.job-hunt.org
www.e-netindia.com
www.mykeystone.com
www.gutterspace.com
www.netguide.com
www.tamilnadustate.com
www.cweb.com
www.espan.com
www.jobcurry.com
www.skillsandjobs.com
www.cioljobs.com
www.lampen.co.nz
--------------------------------------------------------------
Women.
www.womeninfoline.com
www.sitagita.com
www.smartbahu.com
www.feminaindia.com
www.icleo.com
www.women.com
www.rebelleworld.com
www.prerana.com
www.sewa.com
www.evetimes.com
www.brideandhome.com
www.wcd.nic.in
www.indiaw2w.com
www.pyar.cjb.net
www.srimati.com
www.indiatimes.com/women
www.footforward.com
www.soulkurry.com
www.tips4me.com
www.indiaslady.com
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Search Engines.
www.yahoo.com
www.khoj.com
www.rediff.com
www.lycos.com
www.go.com
www.Excite.com
www.altavista.com
www.snap.com
www.looksmart.com
www.askjeeves.com
www.goto.com
www.infoseek.com
www.hotbot.com
www.indolink.com
www.webcrawler.com
www.Iwon.com
www.google.com
-----------------------------------------------------------
Shopping.
www.fabmart.com
www.noshutters.com
www.letsallsave.com
www.skumars.com
www.indiagifts.com
www.indiastores.com
www.indbazaar.com
www.indiashop.com
www.malamall.com
www.chennaibazaar.com
www.ibaya.com
www.infobanc.com
www.indianpurchase.com
www.buy.com
www.bluemountainarts.com
www.ebay.com
www.americangreetings.com
www.cdnow.com
www.mypoints.com
www.egreetings.com
www.coolsavings.com
www.bargainsbazaar.com
www.buyasone.com
www.aolshopping.com
---------------------------------------------------
Recipe.
www.daawat.com
www.bawrachi.com
www.deliciousindia..com
www.indiachef.com
www.bestindianmall.com
www.vegweb.com
www.cookingmarvel.com
www.indianrecipes.com
www.khanakhazana.com
www.tadka.com
www.indochef.com
www.topsecretrecipes.com
www.spicenflavor.com
www.epicurious.com
www.pppindia.com/recepies
www.gadnet.com/foodx.htm
www.emall.com/spice/indian.html
www.indiaworld.co.in/open/rec/recepies
www.namaste.net/html/recepies
www.pugmarks.com/1-stuff/recepie
www.foodtv.com
www.gorp.com/gorp/food/main.htm
www.chefnet.com
www.southerndelights.com
www.dfwms.com/food/dinning.html
www.tripod.com
www.welcomeindia.com/recepi.htm
www.sanjeevkapoor.com
www.tarladalal.com
www.bhojana.com
www.73coffees.com
www.best.com
--------------------------------
Auction.
www.bazaarno1.com
www.baazee.com
www.junction.com
www.auctioners.com
www.jthomas-india.com
www.koolmaal.com
www.terimeri.com
www.trade2gain.com
www.teaauction.com
www.auctionindia.com
www.secondsale.com
www.matexnet.com
www.yelam.com
www.bidorbuy.com
---------------------------------------------------
News/Entertainment.
www.thestatesman.net
www.telegraphindia.com
www.indiatimes.com
www.economictimes.com
www.business-standard.com
www.india-today.com
www.the-hindu.com
www.tamil.net
www.indiaexpress.com
www.expressindia.com
www.samachar.com
www.dinakaran.com
www.Aol.com
www.cnet.com
www.znet.com
www.msnbc.com
www.weather.com
www.broadcastindia.com
www.wahindia.com
www.disneyonline.com
www.go2net.com
www.pathfinder.com
www.ivillage.com
www.cnn.com
www.about.com
www.azcentral.com
www.suntimes.com/index
www.chicagotribune.com
www.dallasnews.com
www.chron.com
www.latimes.com
www.herald.com
www.nydailynews.com
www.nytimes.com
www.usatoday.com
-------------------------------------------------------
Web Directories.
www.infospace.com
www.switchboard.com
www.classmates.com
www.anywho.com
www.1800ussearch.com
www.zip2.com
www.knowx.com
www.bigfoot.com
www.easydo.com
www.yellowpages.net
-----------------------------------------------------------
Travel.
www.travelocity.com
www.travelmartindia.com
www.mapsofindia.com
www.chennaionline.com
www.mumbaitalaash.com
www.net2travel.com
www.jayahey.com
www.biztravel.com
www.outlooktraveller.com
www.razorfinish.com
www.hydonline..com
www.bharatplanet.com
www.shubhyatra.com
www.indiacity.com
www.indiamela.com
www.mapquest.com
www.southwest.com
www.aa.com
www..makemytrip.com
www.tourisminindia.com
www.accessworldwide.com
www.triple1.com
www.destinationindia.com
www.delta-air.com
www.americanair.com
www.itn.com
www.flycontinental.com
www.nwa.com
www.iflyswa.com
www.twa.com
www.ual.com
www.usairways.com
www.fly-virgin.com
www.lowestfare.com
www.aol.com
www.globe-online.com
www.australia.com
www.canada.com/travel
www.mauritius.com
www.touregypt.net
www.expedia.com
-------------------------------------
Loans.
www.allahabadbank.com
www.hdfc.com
www.countrywideindia.com
www.kotakmahindra.com
www.associatesindia.com
www.birlaglobal.com
www.anz.com/india
www.icici.com
www.apnaloan.com
www.citibank.com/india
------------------------------------------------------------------
Art.
www.art.net
www.art.com
www..indiancanvas.com
www.art-in-usa.com
www..rossfineart.com
www.dart.fine-art.com
www.artcyclopedia.com
www.wwar.com
www.nga.gov
www.arthorizons.com
www.art-in-canada.com
www.art-in-europe.com
www.artcottage.com
www.smfa.edu
www.collectorsguide.com
www.artinside.com
www.aboutscotland.com
-----------------------------------------------------
Domain Registration.
www.networksolutions.com
www.signdomains..com
www.domainthugs.com
www.enamaskar.com
www.123domainregistry.com
www.webdomains.net
www.surfport.com
www.virtualdomains.net
wwww.netwizards.net
--------------------------------------------------------------
Games.
www.abc.go.com
www.psygnosis.com
www.hasbrointeractive.com
www.mindspace.com
www.nazaragames.com
www.microsoft.com/games
www.shockblitz.com
www.simthemepark.com
www.gamesdomain.com
www.indiagames.com
www.gamesville.com
www.lycoszone.com
www.leftfoot.com
www.usacoop.com
www.funbrain.com
www.blakkat.com
www.moonme.com
www.nintendo.com
www.gungames.com
www.gamepen.com
www.huronline.com
www.gamesdomain.com
www.komando.com
www.mortalcombat.com
www.aylic.com
www.leftfoot.com
www.gamebot.com
www.happypuppy.com
www.station.sony.com
www.paget.com
www.avana.net
www.riddler..com
www.phrazzle.co.uk
www.gamesdepot.com
www.amo.qc.ca
www.free-gaming.com
www.arcadegamesonline.com
www.plusmedia.com
www.bytesize.com
www.piginc.org
www.nuclearnet.com
www.diablopro.com
------------------------------------------------------
Music.
www.hrithik.net
www.mp3.com
www.music3w..com
www.indiagaana.com
www.dhadkan.com
www.musicworld4u.com
www.enn2.com
www.rhythmindia.com
www.supernet.com www.musiccurry.com
www.whitepathmusic.com
www.indiaculture.miningco.com
www.musicweb.co.uk
www.tipsmusicfilms.com
www..topcassette.com
www.ancient-future.com
www.indiaexpress.com
www.hindustan.net
www.aishwarya-rai.com
www.freemusic2u.com
www.coolindiaworld.com
www.angelfire.com
www.bollynet.com
www.joyofindia.com
www.geocities.com
www.justgo.com
www.hamaracd.com
www.ccmusic.com
www.pointlycos.com
www.cqkmusic.com
www.guitarsite.com
www.steelguitarcanada.com
www.mtv.com
www.compass.com
www.rocknrollvault.com
www.music.indiana.edu.com
www.imusic.com
www.civilwarmusic.net
www.webprimitives.com
www.classical.net
www.allmusic.com
www.classicalmusic.co.uk
www.classicalusa.com
www.tunes.com
www.columbiahouse.com
www.mp3grand.com
www.irish-music.net
www.iuma.com
www.worldrecords.com
www.contemplator.com
www.humaracd.com
--------------------------------------------------------
Properties.
www.indiaproperties.com
www.architectmatters.com
www.buildzone.com
www.indiahomeseek.com
www.homeseekars.com
www.realestate.com
www.pioneershelters.com
www.propertyindian.com
www.propertymartindia.com
www.floor2roof.com
www.homes.com
www.indianpropertymarket.com
www.indiaconstruction.com
www.castles.org
www.propertybuilder.com
www.dcircle.com
www.estatebazar..com
www.worldlights.com
www.estatedeals.com
www.estateindia.com
www.homesby.com
-------------------------------------------------------------
Chat.
www.icq.com
www.netfandu.com
www.mirc.com
www.yahoo.com
www.rediff.com
www.coolchat.com
www.talkcity.com
www.chatting.com
www.cybertown.com
www.chatjunkies.com
www.parentcity.com
www.familybeat.com
www.kidsurf.com
www.womenwire.com
www.mainstreetearth.com
www.excite.com
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Software Companies.
www.accel-india.com
www.adsi-us.com
www.apar.com
www.apcc.com
www.daxil.com
www.aptech-worldwide.com
www.autodesk.com
www.baan.com
www.bdpsindia.com
www.bflsoftware.com
www.bitechm.com
www.bslindia.com
www.birlasoft.com
www.bsil.com
www.bplglobal.com
www.iflexsolution.com
www.citibank.com\cosi
www.cmcltd.com
www.cms.co.in
www.cognizant.com
www.ca.com
www.datacraft-asia.com
www.dataproinfoworld.com
www.dbups.com
www.deldot.com
www.digitalindiasw.com
www.dlink-india.com
www.epson.co.in
www.hclinfosystems..com
www.hp.com
www.ibm.com\in
www.itil.com
www.infy.com
www.zensar.com
www.itsindia.com
www.ltitl.com
www.lccinfotech.com
www.lgsi.co.in
www.lotus.com
www.mahindraconsulting.com
www.monitorsindia.com
www.netsol.co.in
www.nexuscomputers.com
www.nortelnetworks.com
www.novell.com
www.patni.com
www.pcsil.com
www.pentamedia-grafix.com
www.pentafour.com
www.polaris.co..in
www.rolta.com
www.samsungindia.com
www.sap.com
www.satyam.com
www.sasi.com
www.silverline.com
www.ssil-india.com
www.sqlstarintl.com
www.sumitindia.com
www.tataelxsi.com
www.tatainfotech.com
www.tata.com\ttil
www.tulipsoftware.com
www.vxl.com
www.wellwin-india.com
--------------------------------------------------------
Astrology.
www.astrology.com
www.astroexpert.com
www.astromantra.com
www.astro-vision.com
www.dailyprediction.com
www.astrology-online.com
www.astrosurfindia.com
www.starlightastrology.com
www.jagjituppal.com
www.nostradamus.org
www.lindagoodman.net
www.zodiacal.com
www.astrologyspot.com
www.ancientweb.com
www.spiritweb.org
www.astrostar.com
www.realastrology.com
www.chineseastrology.com
www.cyberastro.com
www.astrology-india.com
www.astrospeak.com
www.starteller.com
www.jyotish.com
www.metawire.com
www.jaked.org
www.celestialwitch..com
www.thenewage.com
-----------------------------------------------
Health.
www.apollolife.com
www.pharmabiz.com
www.onhealth.com
www.goodhealthnyou.com
www.alibaba.com
www.healthfinder.com
www.healthyideas.com
www.health-library.com
www.health2health.com
www.arogya.com
www.calcuttamedics.com
www.doctoranywhere.com
www.healthcarenyou.com
www.emedlife.com
www.bloodgivers.com
www.goodhealthdirectory.com
www.healthatoz.com
www.caducee.net
www.indegene.com
www.fem40plus.com
www.endocrineindia.com
www.embarrassingproblems.com
www.who.org
www.indmedica.com
www.ehirc.com
www.acupuncture.com
www.acupressure.org
www.apollohospitals.com
www.ayurvedic.org
www.cancer.org
www.doctorsofindia.com
www.doctorsaab.com
www.healingpeople.com
www.homeopathyhome..com
www.webmd.com
www.gynonline.com
www.mayohealth.com
www.yourhealth.com
www.indiaherbs.com
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Matrimonials.
www.jeevansathi.com
www.indiadaily.com
www.matrimonials.com
www.matrimonialonline.com
www.matrimonialsindia.com
www.snehaquest.com
www.a1im.com
www.couples-place.com
www.saakshi.com
www.searchpartner.com
www.inmatch..com
www.desilink.com
www.hastamilap.com
www.indiamatches.com
www.indianrishte.com
www.matrimonials.indiainfo.com
www.indianlink.com
www.indiausamarriage.com
www.indiacanadamarriage.com
www.indobride.com
www.marriage.com
www.rishteyhirishtey.com
www.suitablematch.com
www.godblessmatrimonials.com
www.indianalliance.com
www.indialite.com
www.timesmatrimonial.com
www.bachelorsindia.com
www.webmarriages.com
www.marriagebuilders.com
www.globeads.com
www.cyberproposal.com
www.ourmarriage.com
www.keralamatrimonial.com
www.waycoolwedding.com
www.weddingcircle.com
www.marriagetools.com
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Steel.
www.essar.com
www.clickforsteel.com
www.steel.org
www.recycle-steel.org
www.rolledsteel.com
www.steelnet.org
www.bethsteel.com
www.e-steel.com
www.ltvsteel.com
www.britishsteel.co.uk
------------------------------------------------
Sports.
www.wwf.com
www.collegesports-online.com
www.onlinesports.com
www.espn.go.com
www.khel.com
www.bharatiyahockey.org
www.golfindia.com
www.indianopengolf.com
www.indianhockey.com
www.indiarace.com
www.indiapolo.com
www.indianfootball.com
www.tennisindia.org
www.yourgolfguru.com
www.excite.com
www.ski.com.au
www.usatoday.com
www.adventuresports.com
www.iransports.net
www.activeusa.com
www.attpbgolf.com
www.nike.com
www.leisurepursuits.com
www.foxsports.com
www.wimbledon.com
www.allsports.com
www.caaws.ca/main.htm
www.sportingnews.com
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Animals.
www.allpets.com
www.petchannel.com
www.theoviary.com
www.peta-online.org
www.panda.org
www.aquarium.org
www.nj.com/yucky/worm
www.remedia.com
www.animalsunlimited.net
www.indianwildlife.com
www.sandiegozoo.com
www.animal.discovery.com
www.junglelore.com
www.wildphotos.com
www.cranes.org
www.mahaforest.gov.in
www.animalweb.com
-------------------------------------------
Books.
www.amazon.com
www.merikitaab.com
www.barnesandnoble.com
www.mozzie.com
www.idgbooks.com
www.ingrambook.com
www.ambook.org
www.bookwire.com
www.booktv.com
www.bestbookbuys.com
www.bigbook.com
www.1stbooks.com
www.borders.com
www.bookbrowser.com
www.bookweb.org
www.abebook.com
www.worldbooknetwork.com
www.vintage-books.com
www.bookstudio.com
www.booktalk.com
------------------------------------------------------
Comedy
www.comedy.com
www.comedycentral.com
www.jokewallpaper.com
www.theonion.com
www.humorsearch.com
www.funnies.com
www.netfunny.com/rhf
www.humorpower.com
www.humorproject.com
www.jokes.com
www.lotsofjokes.com
www.comedynet.com
www.cybercheeze.com
www.comedyorama.com
www.cartoon.com
www.humorspace.com
www.humorandhealth.com
www.jokeaday.com
www.funny.co.uk
www.makeyoulaugh.com
www.planethumor.com
www.comic-relief.com
----------------------------------------------------
Hobbies
www.coinuniverse.com
www.stampworld.com
www.juggling.com
www.hobbyworld.com
www.hobbies.net
www.ehobbies.com
www.creative-hobbies.com
www.caboosehobbies.com
www.guineahobbies.com
www.hobbystores.com
www.sabersedge.com
www.hobbyhobby.com
www..towerhobbies.com
-------------------------------------------------------
Films/Movies
www.film..com
www.filmscouts.com
www.imdb.com
www.777film.com
www.reel.com
www.hollywood.com
www.bollywood.com
www.filmtvindia.com
www.bollywoodonline.com
www.bollywoodpremiere.com
www.indiamoviebiz.com
www.cinesouth.com
www.indiatalkies.com
www.qcinema.com
www.actress-actor.com
----------------------------------------------------
Kids.
www.cyberkids.com
www.kidlink.org
www.kidsworld.com
www.vsa.cape.com/powens
www.headbone.com
www.kids-corner.com
www.kidsdomain.com
www.kids-space.org
www.kidscom.com
www.safekids.com
www.child.net
www.4kids.com
www.kotb.com
www.timeforkids.com
www.foxkids.com
www.cyberkids.com
www.bonus.com
------------------------------------------------
Decorations
www.orientarts.com
www.creepypeepers.com
www.decor.a2z-holidays.com
www.indodecor.com
www.dir-dd.com
www.alliving.com
www.decoegypt.com
www.gospurk.com
www.topbrillant.com
www.decoratingstudio.com
www.homeartdecor.com
www.interiorworld.com
---------------------------------------------
Religious
www.ashramonline.com
www.onlinedarshan.com
www.saranam.com
www.sevapooja.com
www.indiablessings.com
www.bhagavadgita.org
www.buddhanet.net
www.indiantemples.com
www.islaam.org
www.islam.org/mosque
www.jaindarshan.com
www.thegreatgoddess.com
www.balaji.net
www.shirdibaba.org
www.shraddhanjali.com
www.siddhivinayak.org
www.hindumythology.com
www.sgpc.net
www.osho.com
www.oshoworld.com
-------------------------------------------------
E-Barter
www.spun.com
www.tradeaway.com
www.bartertrust.com
www.ubarter.com
www.switchouse.com
--------------------------------------------------
Organiser
www.yourorganiser.com
www.dailydrill.com
www.digital.daytimer.com
www.magicdesk.com
www.when.com
www.anyday.com
-------------------------------------------------
Fitness
www.fitnesslink.com
www.fitnessonline.com
www.netsweat.com
www.muscle-fitness.com
www.fitnesszone.com
www.fitness.com
www.cyberfitness.net
www.walkabyebaby.com
www.24hourfitness..com
www.fitnessmagazine.com
www.abc2day.com
www.bennygoodsport.com
www.modelfitness.com
www.atozfitness.com
www.shapeup.org
www.fitnessworld.com
www.resort2fitness.com
--------------------------------------------------
Automobiles
www.automobiles.com
www.classiccar.com
www.autosite.com
www.auto.com
www.automartindia.com
www.automeet.com
www.driveindia.com
www.bsmotoring.com
www.autodarling.com
www.vipclassics.com
www.wwwheels.com
www.carstreet.com
www.carmasala.com
www.cybersteering.com
www.mercedes.com
www.toyota.com
www.mitsubishi.com
www.india.ford.com
www.daewooindia.com
www.marutiudyog.com
www.telcoindia.com
www.generalmotors.com
www.hindustanmotors.com
www.mahindraworld.com
www..carloansindia.com
www.aaa.com
www.pacificomazda.com
---------------------------------------------
Furniture
www.furniture.com
www.furnitureonline.com
www.goodhome.com
www.drawrn.com/furn.htm
www.furniturefind.com
www.go-furniture.com
www.bluetomatoes.com
www.jori.com
www.furnitureguys.com
www.thomasville..com
www.chinese-furniture.com
www.furnitureshoppers.com
www.willowcreekfurniture.com
www.worlddesigncenter.com
----------------------------------------------
Jewellery
www.enchantejewellery.com
www.la.premiere.com
www.indianjewellery.net
www.jewellery-net-asia.com
www.asfour-crystal.com
www.24carat.co.uk
www.tiffany.com
www.pearlglass.com
www.damesjewel.com
www.jewellery-direct.com
www.jewellerystore.com
www.jewellerywarehouse.co.uk
www.jemsandjewels.com
www.18carat.co.uk
www.mehtajewellery.com
www.adiamondsforever.com
www.gold-jewelry.co.uk
www.jewelleryshow.com
----------------------------------------------
Encyclopedia
www.encyclopedia.com
www.encarta.msn.com
www.britannica.com
www.ntreasearch.com
www.go.grolier.com
www.kids.infoplease.com
www.letsfindout.com
www.stars.com
www.boatshowusa.com
www.encyclozine.com
www.libraryspot.com
www.shotokai.cl
www.emulateme.com
-----------------------------------------
Photography
www.photographyreview.com
www.agfaphoto.com
www.indiaphotography.com
www.masters-of-photography.com
www.photodisc.com
www.indialight.com
www.photoindia.com
www.photocentreindia.com
www.onlinephotography.com
www.photographymuseum.com
www.photoresource.com
www.sightphoto.com
www.kodak.com
www.digital-photography.org
www.photolinks..net
www.thephotosite.com
www.arteffects.com
----------------------------------------
History
www.historychannel.com
www.thehistorynet.com
www.history.com
www.historyhouse.com
www.historyinternational.com
www.historyplace.com
www.historyoftheworld.com
www.hyperhistory.com
www.womeninworldhistory.com
---------------------------------------
Maps
www.mapquest.com
www.map.org
www.map.excite.com
www.map.com
www.emagame.com
www.maptown.com
www.thomas.com
www.chicagomap.com
www.mapacademy.com
www.3datlas.com
www.4maps.com
--------------------------------------------
Literature
www.vrindaindia.com
www.amedeo.com
www.litrature.org
www.iranonline.com
www.afganonline.com
www.ethiopiaonline.com
---------------------------------------------
Quiz
www.quizsite.com
www.coolquiz.com
www.brainstormers.com
www.posterquiz.com
www.quotequiz.com
www.wordquiz.com
www.qunlimited.com
www.allstarquiz.com
----------------------------------------------------
Parenting
www.indiaparenting.com
www.fathersworld.com
www.allaboutparents.com
www.familyplay.com
www.indiachildren.com
www.indianmoms.com
www.indianmother.com
www.parentsoup.com
www.parentstages.com
www.mustformums.com
www.drspock.com
www.babycenter.com
www.parenting.com
-----------------------------------------------------
Banking
www.rbi.org.in.
www.sbi.co.in
www.bankofbaroda.com
www.icicibank.com
www.allahabadbank.com
www.bank-of-maharashtra.com
www.globaltrustbank.com
www.hdfcbank.com
www.idbibank.com
www.indian-bank..com
www.mysorebank.com
www.pnbindia.com
www.punjabandsindbank.com
www.vijayabank.com
www.ucobank.com
www.syndicatebank.com
www.statebankofindore.com
www.standardchartered.com/in
www.citibank.com/india
www.corpbank.com
www.denabank.com
www.canbankindia.com
www.boiind.com
------------------------------------------------------
Others
www.sawaal.com
www.planetcustomer.com
www.screensaver.com
www.bimaonline.com
www.masti.com
www.fashiononline.com
www.mailmetoday.com
www.bimatimes.com
www.indialedger.com
www.glamorousfaces.com
www.ideas2.com
www.bizkool.com
www.indianroots.com
www.bonzi.com
www.elabh.com
www.directhit.com
www.orbitcybertech.com
www.setindia.com
www.evoke.com
www.pugmarks.net
www.familycq.com.com
www.banglanatak.com
www.zatang.com
www.bsmotoring.com
www.roomairconditioner.com
www.electricmela.com
www.bigwebindia.com
www.hyperoffice.com
www.allwonders.com
www.windpowerindia.com
www.virinchi.com
www.indiaelectricmarket.com
www.americaonline.com
www.rightserve.com
www.phone.com
www.software.com
www.apnatransport.com
www.dgreetings.com
www.yet2.com
www.vsnl.com
www.satyamonline.com
www.123india.com
www.hifunda.com
www.indya.com
www.indiafm.com
www.a4india.com
www.caltiger.com
www.indiainfo.com
www.mantraonline.com
www.onlysmart.com
www.indiatimes.com
www.indiabiz.com
www.indiamarkets.com
www.nazara.com
www.bharatnet.com
www.forindia.com
www.jaldi.com
www.nerdworld.com
source: the internet
Legal Affairs.
www.cyberlawindia.com
www.india-laws.com
www.lawinfo..com
www.lawsinindia.com
www.vakilno1.com
www.indiapropertylaws.com
www.courtsjudgements.com
www.lawinc.com
www.icj-cij.org
www.legiz.com
www.naavi.com
------------------------------------------
Contests.
www.hungama.com
www.ticklewit.com
www.contests2win.com
www.lycosasia.com
www.contestguide.com
www.2000photocontests.com
www.supercontest.com
www.huronline.com
www.beaniemania..com
www.contestworld.com
www.bluestreakcontest.com
www.artcontest.com
www.indiainfoline.com
www.computerdrawing.com
www.sweepstakesonline.com
www.guests.com
www.poetrytodayonline.com
www.imca.com
www.bbbonline.com
www.funnypages.com
www.dreamscape.com
------------------------------------------
Cricket.
www.total-cricket.com
www.cricinfo.com
www.cricket.org
www.go4cricket.com
www.khel.com
www.cricket.org
www.cricketnyou.com
www.clickcricket.com
www.thatscricket.com
www.magiccricket.com
www.cricketline.com
www.yehhaicricket.com
www.cricketnext.com
------------------------------------------
Finance.
www.finsights.com
www.walle[how wude!]ch.com
www.moneycontrol.com
www.myiris.com
www.stockmarkit.com
www.economywatch.com
www.equitymaster.com
www.indiainfoline.com
www.sharebazaar.com
www.kotakstreet.com
www.5paisa.com
www.indiabulls.com
www.dhan.com
www.starmarkettips.com
www.paisapower.com
www.nyse.com
www.nasdaq.com
www.nse-india.com
www..sebi.com
www.khel.com
www.pcquote.com
www.stockmaster.com
www.xe.net/currency
www.motilaloswal.com
www.mutualfundsindia.com
www.rrfinance.com
www.sharekhan.com
www.rupeesaver.com
www.ingsavingtrust.com
www.icicidirect.com
www.unittrustofindia.com
www.licmutual.com
www.bajajcapital.com
www.kotakmahindra.com
www.ebizbirlaglobal.com
www..creditcapitalamc.com
-----------------------------------------------
E-Greetings.
www.123greetings.com
www.3greetings.com
www.greetings.jagran.com
www.clubgreetings.com
www..archiesonline.com
www.hallmark.com
www.cardbymail.com
www.dgreetings.com
www.bluemountain.com
www.castlemountain.com
www.bharathgreetings.com
----------------------------------------------
Education.
www.egurucool.com
www.schoolcircle.com
www.netvarsity.com
www.onlinevarsity.com
www.shiksha.com
www.buckleyourshoe.com
www.freeskills.com
www.smartforce.com/smb
www.examsonline.com
www.competitionmaster.com
www.mastertutor.com
www.zeelearn.com
www.netprotraining.com
www.careerlauncher.com
www.classteacher.com
www.gurukulonline.com
www.iln.net
www.esaras.com
www.lycoszone.com
www.pinkmonkey.com
www.schoolsofcalcutta.com
www.entranceguru.com
www.pentafour.com
www.Qsupport.com
www.intelsyseducation.com
www.niit.com
www.aptech.com
www.institute.net
www.indiaedu.com
www.educationbangalore.com
www.upsc.gov.in
www.ed.gov
www.educationworld.com
www.nativechild.com
www.educationtimes.com
www.chemketaonline.com
www.getsmartonline.com
www.fastboot.scom
www.batchmates.com
www.fluentzy.com
www.15-21.com
www.teenfunda.com
www.sparkinglearning.com
www.zipahead.com
www.wiltiky.com
www.bostonci.com
www.sophiaopp.org
www.mindzones.com
www.kaplancollege.com
www.tutor4computer.com
www.talentduniya.com
www.worlduonline.com
www.englishpractice.com
www.barkeley.edu
www.utexas.edu
www.mit.edu
www.umich.edu
www.uiuc.edu
www..upenn.edu
www.wisc.edu
www.harvard.edu
www.cornell.edu
www.unc.edu
www.education-world.com
www.novell.com
www.gnacademy.org
www.shawguides.com
www.ias.org
www.apple.com
www.classroom.net
www.allindia.com
www.funbrain.com
www.petersons.com
www.educationplanet.com
www.discoveryschool.com
www.eduplace.com.com
www.free-ed.net
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Jobs.
www.naukri.com
www.3p-lobsearch.com
www.career1000.com
www.careerindia.com
www.employindia.com
www.indianjobs.com
www.placementindia.com
www.placementpoint..com
www.timesjobsandcareers.com
www.winjobs.com
www.redforwomen.com
www.go4careers.com
www.indiaventures.com
www.indiagateway.com
www.jobsahead.com
www.alltimejobs.com
www.careerage.com
www.headhunters.net
www.monster.com
www.careers.org
www.eresumes.com
www.careerxroads.com
www.nationjob.com
www.jobweb.com
www.aidnjobs.com
www.careerforyou.com
www.careergun.com
www.go4careers.com
www.lobs.itspace.com
www.joboptions.com
www.careermosaic.com
www.jobconnection.com
www.bestjobsusa.com
www.careerpath.com
www.americasemployers.com
www.job-interview.net
www.geojobs.bizland.com
www.job-hunt.org
www.e-netindia.com
www.mykeystone.com
www.gutterspace.com
www.netguide.com
www.tamilnadustate.com
www.cweb.com
www.espan.com
www.jobcurry.com
www.skillsandjobs.com
www.cioljobs.com
www.lampen.co.nz
--------------------------------------------------------------
Women.
www.womeninfoline.com
www.sitagita.com
www.smartbahu.com
www.feminaindia.com
www.icleo.com
www.women.com
www.rebelleworld.com
www.prerana.com
www.sewa.com
www.evetimes.com
www.brideandhome.com
www.wcd.nic.in
www.indiaw2w.com
www.pyar.cjb.net
www.srimati.com
www.indiatimes.com/women
www.footforward.com
www.soulkurry.com
www.tips4me.com
www.indiaslady.com
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Search Engines.
www.yahoo.com
www.khoj.com
www.rediff.com
www.lycos.com
www.go.com
www.Excite.com
www.altavista.com
www.snap.com
www.looksmart.com
www.askjeeves.com
www.goto.com
www.infoseek.com
www.hotbot.com
www.indolink.com
www.webcrawler.com
www.Iwon.com
www.google.com
-----------------------------------------------------------
Shopping.
www.fabmart.com
www.noshutters.com
www.letsallsave.com
www.skumars.com
www.indiagifts.com
www.indiastores.com
www.indbazaar.com
www.indiashop.com
www.malamall.com
www.chennaibazaar.com
www.ibaya.com
www.infobanc.com
www.indianpurchase.com
www.buy.com
www.bluemountainarts.com
www.ebay.com
www.americangreetings.com
www.cdnow.com
www.mypoints.com
www.egreetings.com
www.coolsavings.com
www.bargainsbazaar.com
www.buyasone.com
www.aolshopping.com
---------------------------------------------------
Recipe.
www.daawat.com
www.bawrachi.com
www.deliciousindia..com
www.indiachef.com
www.bestindianmall.com
www.vegweb.com
www.cookingmarvel.com
www.indianrecipes.com
www.khanakhazana.com
www.tadka.com
www.indochef.com
www.topsecretrecipes.com
www.spicenflavor.com
www.epicurious.com
www.pppindia.com/recepies
www.gadnet.com/foodx.htm
www.emall.com/spice/indian.html
www.indiaworld.co.in/open/rec/recepies
www.namaste.net/html/recepies
www.pugmarks.com/1-stuff/recepie
www.foodtv.com
www.gorp.com/gorp/food/main.htm
www.chefnet.com
www.southerndelights.com
www.dfwms.com/food/dinning.html
www.tripod.com
www.welcomeindia.com/recepi.htm
www.sanjeevkapoor.com
www.tarladalal.com
www.bhojana.com
www.73coffees.com
www.best.com
--------------------------------
Auction.
www.bazaarno1.com
www.baazee.com
www.junction.com
www.auctioners.com
www.jthomas-india.com
www.koolmaal.com
www.terimeri.com
www.trade2gain.com
www.teaauction.com
www.auctionindia.com
www.secondsale.com
www.matexnet.com
www.yelam.com
www.bidorbuy.com
---------------------------------------------------
News/Entertainment.
www.thestatesman.net
www.telegraphindia.com
www.indiatimes.com
www.economictimes.com
www.business-standard.com
www.india-today.com
www.the-hindu.com
www.tamil.net
www.indiaexpress.com
www.expressindia.com
www.samachar.com
www.dinakaran.com
www.Aol.com
www.cnet.com
www.znet.com
www.msnbc.com
www.weather.com
www.broadcastindia.com
www.wahindia.com
www.disneyonline.com
www.go2net.com
www.pathfinder.com
www.ivillage.com
www.cnn.com
www.about.com
www.azcentral.com
www.suntimes.com/index
www.chicagotribune.com
www.dallasnews.com
www.chron.com
www.latimes.com
www.herald.com
www.nydailynews.com
www.nytimes.com
www.usatoday.com
-------------------------------------------------------
Web Directories.
www.infospace.com
www.switchboard.com
www.classmates.com
www.anywho.com
www.1800ussearch.com
www.zip2.com
www.knowx.com
www.bigfoot.com
www.easydo.com
www.yellowpages.net
-----------------------------------------------------------
Travel.
www.travelocity.com
www.travelmartindia.com
www.mapsofindia.com
www.chennaionline.com
www.mumbaitalaash.com
www.net2travel.com
www.jayahey.com
www.biztravel.com
www.outlooktraveller.com
www.razorfinish.com
www.hydonline..com
www.bharatplanet.com
www.shubhyatra.com
www.indiacity.com
www.indiamela.com
www.mapquest.com
www.southwest.com
www.aa.com
www..makemytrip.com
www.tourisminindia.com
www.accessworldwide.com
www.triple1.com
www.destinationindia.com
www.delta-air.com
www.americanair.com
www.itn.com
www.flycontinental.com
www.nwa.com
www.iflyswa.com
www.twa.com
www.ual.com
www.usairways.com
www.fly-virgin.com
www.lowestfare.com
www.aol.com
www.globe-online.com
www.australia.com
www.canada.com/travel
www.mauritius.com
www.touregypt.net
www.expedia.com
-------------------------------------
Loans.
www.allahabadbank.com
www.hdfc.com
www.countrywideindia.com
www.kotakmahindra.com
www.associatesindia.com
www.birlaglobal.com
www.anz.com/india
www.icici.com
www.apnaloan.com
www.citibank.com/india
------------------------------------------------------------------
Art.
www.art.net
www.art.com
www..indiancanvas.com
www.art-in-usa.com
www..rossfineart.com
www.dart.fine-art.com
www.artcyclopedia.com
www.wwar.com
www.nga.gov
www.arthorizons.com
www.art-in-canada.com
www.art-in-europe.com
www.artcottage.com
www.smfa.edu
www.collectorsguide.com
www.artinside.com
www.aboutscotland.com
-----------------------------------------------------
Domain Registration.
www.networksolutions.com
www.signdomains..com
www.domainthugs.com
www.enamaskar.com
www.123domainregistry.com
www.webdomains.net
www.surfport.com
www.virtualdomains.net
wwww.netwizards.net
--------------------------------------------------------------
Games.
www.abc.go.com
www.psygnosis.com
www.hasbrointeractive.com
www.mindspace.com
www.nazaragames.com
www.microsoft.com/games
www.shockblitz.com
www.simthemepark.com
www.gamesdomain.com
www.indiagames.com
www.gamesville.com
www.lycoszone.com
www.leftfoot.com
www.usacoop.com
www.funbrain.com
www.blakkat.com
www.moonme.com
www.nintendo.com
www.gungames.com
www.gamepen.com
www.huronline.com
www.gamesdomain.com
www.komando.com
www.mortalcombat.com
www.aylic.com
www.leftfoot.com
www.gamebot.com
www.happypuppy.com
www.station.sony.com
www.paget.com
www.avana.net
www.riddler..com
www.phrazzle.co.uk
www.gamesdepot.com
www.amo.qc.ca
www.free-gaming.com
www.arcadegamesonline.com
www.plusmedia.com
www.bytesize.com
www.piginc.org
www.nuclearnet.com
www.diablopro.com
------------------------------------------------------
Music.
www.hrithik.net
www.mp3.com
www.music3w..com
www.indiagaana.com
www.dhadkan.com
www.musicworld4u.com
www.enn2.com
www.rhythmindia.com
www.supernet.com www.musiccurry.com
www.whitepathmusic.com
www.indiaculture.miningco.com
www.musicweb.co.uk
www.tipsmusicfilms.com
www..topcassette.com
www.ancient-future.com
www.indiaexpress.com
www.hindustan.net
www.aishwarya-rai.com
www.freemusic2u.com
www.coolindiaworld.com
www.angelfire.com
www.bollynet.com
www.joyofindia.com
www.geocities.com
www.justgo.com
www.hamaracd.com
www.ccmusic.com
www.pointlycos.com
www.cqkmusic.com
www.guitarsite.com
www.steelguitarcanada.com
www.mtv.com
www.compass.com
www.rocknrollvault.com
www.music.indiana.edu.com
www.imusic.com
www.civilwarmusic.net
www.webprimitives.com
www.classical.net
www.allmusic.com
www.classicalmusic.co.uk
www.classicalusa.com
www.tunes.com
www.columbiahouse.com
www.mp3grand.com
www.irish-music.net
www.iuma.com
www.worldrecords.com
www.contemplator.com
www.humaracd.com
--------------------------------------------------------
Properties.
www.indiaproperties.com
www.architectmatters.com
www.buildzone.com
www.indiahomeseek.com
www.homeseekars.com
www.realestate.com
www.pioneershelters.com
www.propertyindian.com
www.propertymartindia.com
www.floor2roof.com
www.homes.com
www.indianpropertymarket.com
www.indiaconstruction.com
www.castles.org
www.propertybuilder.com
www.dcircle.com
www.estatebazar..com
www.worldlights.com
www.estatedeals.com
www.estateindia.com
www.homesby.com
-------------------------------------------------------------
Chat.
www.icq.com
www.netfandu.com
www.mirc.com
www.yahoo.com
www.rediff.com
www.coolchat.com
www.talkcity.com
www.chatting.com
www.cybertown.com
www.chatjunkies.com
www.parentcity.com
www.familybeat.com
www.kidsurf.com
www.womenwire.com
www.mainstreetearth.com
www.excite.com
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Software Companies.
www.accel-india.com
www.adsi-us.com
www.apar.com
www.apcc.com
www.daxil.com
www.aptech-worldwide.com
www.autodesk.com
www.baan.com
www.bdpsindia.com
www.bflsoftware.com
www.bitechm.com
www.bslindia.com
www.birlasoft.com
www.bsil.com
www.bplglobal.com
www.iflexsolution.com
www.citibank.com\cosi
www.cmcltd.com
www.cms.co.in
www.cognizant.com
www.ca.com
www.datacraft-asia.com
www.dataproinfoworld.com
www.dbups.com
www.deldot.com
www.digitalindiasw.com
www.dlink-india.com
www.epson.co.in
www.hclinfosystems..com
www.hp.com
www.ibm.com\in
www.itil.com
www.infy.com
www.zensar.com
www.itsindia.com
www.ltitl.com
www.lccinfotech.com
www.lgsi.co.in
www.lotus.com
www.mahindraconsulting.com
www.monitorsindia.com
www.netsol.co.in
www.nexuscomputers.com
www.nortelnetworks.com
www.novell.com
www.patni.com
www.pcsil.com
www.pentamedia-grafix.com
www.pentafour.com
www.polaris.co..in
www.rolta.com
www.samsungindia.com
www.sap.com
www.satyam.com
www.sasi.com
www.silverline.com
www.ssil-india.com
www.sqlstarintl.com
www.sumitindia.com
www.tataelxsi.com
www.tatainfotech.com
www.tata.com\ttil
www.tulipsoftware.com
www.vxl.com
www.wellwin-india.com
--------------------------------------------------------
Astrology.
www.astrology.com
www.astroexpert.com
www.astromantra.com
www.astro-vision.com
www.dailyprediction.com
www.astrology-online.com
www.astrosurfindia.com
www.starlightastrology.com
www.jagjituppal.com
www.nostradamus.org
www.lindagoodman.net
www.zodiacal.com
www.astrologyspot.com
www.ancientweb.com
www.spiritweb.org
www.astrostar.com
www.realastrology.com
www.chineseastrology.com
www.cyberastro.com
www.astrology-india.com
www.astrospeak.com
www.starteller.com
www.jyotish.com
www.metawire.com
www.jaked.org
www.celestialwitch..com
www.thenewage.com
-----------------------------------------------
Health.
www.apollolife.com
www.pharmabiz.com
www.onhealth.com
www.goodhealthnyou.com
www.alibaba.com
www.healthfinder.com
www.healthyideas.com
www.health-library.com
www.health2health.com
www.arogya.com
www.calcuttamedics.com
www.doctoranywhere.com
www.healthcarenyou.com
www.emedlife.com
www.bloodgivers.com
www.goodhealthdirectory.com
www.healthatoz.com
www.caducee.net
www.indegene.com
www.fem40plus.com
www.endocrineindia.com
www.embarrassingproblems.com
www.who.org
www.indmedica.com
www.ehirc.com
www.acupuncture.com
www.acupressure.org
www.apollohospitals.com
www.ayurvedic.org
www.cancer.org
www.doctorsofindia.com
www.doctorsaab.com
www.healingpeople.com
www.homeopathyhome..com
www.webmd.com
www.gynonline.com
www.mayohealth.com
www.yourhealth.com
www.indiaherbs.com
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Matrimonials.
www.jeevansathi.com
www.indiadaily.com
www.matrimonials.com
www.matrimonialonline.com
www.matrimonialsindia.com
www.snehaquest.com
www.a1im.com
www.couples-place.com
www.saakshi.com
www.searchpartner.com
www.inmatch..com
www.desilink.com
www.hastamilap.com
www.indiamatches.com
www.indianrishte.com
www.matrimonials.indiainfo.com
www.indianlink.com
www.indiausamarriage.com
www.indiacanadamarriage.com
www.indobride.com
www.marriage.com
www.rishteyhirishtey.com
www.suitablematch.com
www.godblessmatrimonials.com
www.indianalliance.com
www.indialite.com
www.timesmatrimonial.com
www.bachelorsindia.com
www.webmarriages.com
www.marriagebuilders.com
www.globeads.com
www.cyberproposal.com
www.ourmarriage.com
www.keralamatrimonial.com
www.waycoolwedding.com
www.weddingcircle.com
www.marriagetools.com
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Steel.
www.essar.com
www.clickforsteel.com
www.steel.org
www.recycle-steel.org
www.rolledsteel.com
www.steelnet.org
www.bethsteel.com
www.e-steel.com
www.ltvsteel.com
www.britishsteel.co.uk
------------------------------------------------
Sports.
www.wwf.com
www.collegesports-online.com
www.onlinesports.com
www.espn.go.com
www.khel.com
www.bharatiyahockey.org
www.golfindia.com
www.indianopengolf.com
www.indianhockey.com
www.indiarace.com
www.indiapolo.com
www.indianfootball.com
www.tennisindia.org
www.yourgolfguru.com
www.excite.com
www.ski.com.au
www.usatoday.com
www.adventuresports.com
www.iransports.net
www.activeusa.com
www.attpbgolf.com
www.nike.com
www.leisurepursuits.com
www.foxsports.com
www.wimbledon.com
www.allsports.com
www.caaws.ca/main.htm
www.sportingnews.com
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Animals.
www.allpets.com
www.petchannel.com
www.theoviary.com
www.peta-online.org
www.panda.org
www.aquarium.org
www.nj.com/yucky/worm
www.remedia.com
www.animalsunlimited.net
www.indianwildlife.com
www.sandiegozoo.com
www.animal.discovery.com
www.junglelore.com
www.wildphotos.com
www.cranes.org
www.mahaforest.gov.in
www.animalweb.com
-------------------------------------------
Books.
www.amazon.com
www.merikitaab.com
www.barnesandnoble.com
www.mozzie.com
www.idgbooks.com
www.ingrambook.com
www.ambook.org
www.bookwire.com
www.booktv.com
www.bestbookbuys.com
www.bigbook.com
www.1stbooks.com
www.borders.com
www.bookbrowser.com
www.bookweb.org
www.abebook.com
www.worldbooknetwork.com
www.vintage-books.com
www.bookstudio.com
www.booktalk.com
------------------------------------------------------
Comedy
www.comedy.com
www.comedycentral.com
www.jokewallpaper.com
www.theonion.com
www.humorsearch.com
www.funnies.com
www.netfunny.com/rhf
www.humorpower.com
www.humorproject.com
www.jokes.com
www.lotsofjokes.com
www.comedynet.com
www.cybercheeze.com
www.comedyorama.com
www.cartoon.com
www.humorspace.com
www.humorandhealth.com
www.jokeaday.com
www.funny.co.uk
www.makeyoulaugh.com
www.planethumor.com
www.comic-relief.com
----------------------------------------------------
Hobbies
www.coinuniverse.com
www.stampworld.com
www.juggling.com
www.hobbyworld.com
www.hobbies.net
www.ehobbies.com
www.creative-hobbies.com
www.caboosehobbies.com
www.guineahobbies.com
www.hobbystores.com
www.sabersedge.com
www.hobbyhobby.com
www..towerhobbies.com
-------------------------------------------------------
Films/Movies
www.film..com
www.filmscouts.com
www.imdb.com
www.777film.com
www.reel.com
www.hollywood.com
www.bollywood.com
www.filmtvindia.com
www.bollywoodonline.com
www.bollywoodpremiere.com
www.indiamoviebiz.com
www.cinesouth.com
www.indiatalkies.com
www.qcinema.com
www.actress-actor.com
----------------------------------------------------
Kids.
www.cyberkids.com
www.kidlink.org
www.kidsworld.com
www.vsa.cape.com/powens
www.headbone.com
www.kids-corner.com
www.kidsdomain.com
www.kids-space.org
www.kidscom.com
www.safekids.com
www.child.net
www.4kids.com
www.kotb.com
www.timeforkids.com
www.foxkids.com
www.cyberkids.com
www.bonus.com
------------------------------------------------
Decorations
www.orientarts.com
www.creepypeepers.com
www.decor.a2z-holidays.com
www.indodecor.com
www.dir-dd.com
www.alliving.com
www.decoegypt.com
www.gospurk.com
www.topbrillant.com
www.decoratingstudio.com
www.homeartdecor.com
www.interiorworld.com
---------------------------------------------
Religious
www.ashramonline.com
www.onlinedarshan.com
www.saranam.com
www.sevapooja.com
www.indiablessings.com
www.bhagavadgita.org
www.buddhanet.net
www.indiantemples.com
www.islaam.org
www.islam.org/mosque
www.jaindarshan.com
www.thegreatgoddess.com
www.balaji.net
www.shirdibaba.org
www.shraddhanjali.com
www.siddhivinayak.org
www.hindumythology.com
www.sgpc.net
www.osho.com
www.oshoworld.com
-------------------------------------------------
E-Barter
www.spun.com
www.tradeaway.com
www.bartertrust.com
www.ubarter.com
www.switchouse.com
--------------------------------------------------
Organiser
www.yourorganiser.com
www.dailydrill.com
www.digital.daytimer.com
www.magicdesk.com
www.when.com
www.anyday.com
-------------------------------------------------
Fitness
www.fitnesslink.com
www.fitnessonline.com
www.netsweat.com
www.muscle-fitness.com
www.fitnesszone.com
www.fitness.com
www.cyberfitness.net
www.walkabyebaby.com
www.24hourfitness..com
www.fitnessmagazine.com
www.abc2day.com
www.bennygoodsport.com
www.modelfitness.com
www.atozfitness.com
www.shapeup.org
www.fitnessworld.com
www.resort2fitness.com
--------------------------------------------------
Automobiles
www.automobiles.com
www.classiccar.com
www.autosite.com
www.auto.com
www.automartindia.com
www.automeet.com
www.driveindia.com
www.bsmotoring.com
www.autodarling.com
www.vipclassics.com
www.wwwheels.com
www.carstreet.com
www.carmasala.com
www.cybersteering.com
www.mercedes.com
www.toyota.com
www.mitsubishi.com
www.india.ford.com
www.daewooindia.com
www.marutiudyog.com
www.telcoindia.com
www.generalmotors.com
www.hindustanmotors.com
www.mahindraworld.com
www..carloansindia.com
www.aaa.com
www.pacificomazda.com
---------------------------------------------
Furniture
www.furniture.com
www.furnitureonline.com
www.goodhome.com
www.drawrn.com/furn.htm
www.furniturefind.com
www.go-furniture.com
www.bluetomatoes.com
www.jori.com
www.furnitureguys.com
www.thomasville..com
www.chinese-furniture.com
www.furnitureshoppers.com
www.willowcreekfurniture.com
www.worlddesigncenter.com
----------------------------------------------
Jewellery
www.enchantejewellery.com
www.la.premiere.com
www.indianjewellery.net
www.jewellery-net-asia.com
www.asfour-crystal.com
www.24carat.co.uk
www.tiffany.com
www.pearlglass.com
www.damesjewel.com
www.jewellery-direct.com
www.jewellerystore.com
www.jewellerywarehouse.co.uk
www.jemsandjewels.com
www.18carat.co.uk
www.mehtajewellery.com
www.adiamondsforever.com
www.gold-jewelry.co.uk
www.jewelleryshow.com
----------------------------------------------
Encyclopedia
www.encyclopedia.com
www.encarta.msn.com
www.britannica.com
www.ntreasearch.com
www.go.grolier.com
www.kids.infoplease.com
www.letsfindout.com
www.stars.com
www.boatshowusa.com
www.encyclozine.com
www.libraryspot.com
www.shotokai.cl
www.emulateme.com
-----------------------------------------
Photography
www.photographyreview.com
www.agfaphoto.com
www.indiaphotography.com
www.masters-of-photography.com
www.photodisc.com
www.indialight.com
www.photoindia.com
www.photocentreindia.com
www.onlinephotography.com
www.photographymuseum.com
www.photoresource.com
www.sightphoto.com
www.kodak.com
www.digital-photography.org
www.photolinks..net
www.thephotosite.com
www.arteffects.com
----------------------------------------
History
www.historychannel.com
www.thehistorynet.com
www.history.com
www.historyhouse.com
www.historyinternational.com
www.historyplace.com
www.historyoftheworld.com
www.hyperhistory.com
www.womeninworldhistory.com
---------------------------------------
Maps
www.mapquest.com
www.map.org
www.map.excite.com
www.map.com
www.emagame.com
www.maptown.com
www.thomas.com
www.chicagomap.com
www.mapacademy.com
www.3datlas.com
www.4maps.com
--------------------------------------------
Literature
www.vrindaindia.com
www.amedeo.com
www.litrature.org
www.iranonline.com
www.afganonline.com
www.ethiopiaonline.com
---------------------------------------------
Quiz
www.quizsite.com
www.coolquiz.com
www.brainstormers.com
www.posterquiz.com
www.quotequiz.com
www.wordquiz.com
www.qunlimited.com
www.allstarquiz.com
----------------------------------------------------
Parenting
www.indiaparenting.com
www.fathersworld.com
www.allaboutparents.com
www.familyplay.com
www.indiachildren.com
www.indianmoms.com
www.indianmother.com
www.parentsoup.com
www.parentstages.com
www.mustformums.com
www.drspock.com
www.babycenter.com
www.parenting.com
-----------------------------------------------------
Banking
www.rbi.org.in.
www.sbi.co.in
www.bankofbaroda.com
www.icicibank.com
www.allahabadbank.com
www.bank-of-maharashtra.com
www.globaltrustbank.com
www.hdfcbank.com
www.idbibank.com
www.indian-bank..com
www.mysorebank.com
www.pnbindia.com
www.punjabandsindbank.com
www.vijayabank.com
www.ucobank.com
www.syndicatebank.com
www.statebankofindore.com
www.standardchartered.com/in
www.citibank.com/india
www.corpbank.com
www.denabank.com
www.canbankindia.com
www.boiind.com
------------------------------------------------------
Others
www.sawaal.com
www.planetcustomer.com
www.screensaver.com
www.bimaonline.com
www.masti.com
www.fashiononline.com
www.mailmetoday.com
www.bimatimes.com
www.indialedger.com
www.glamorousfaces.com
www.ideas2.com
www.bizkool.com
www.indianroots.com
www.bonzi.com
www.elabh.com
www.directhit.com
www.orbitcybertech.com
www.setindia.com
www.evoke.com
www.pugmarks.net
www.familycq.com.com
www.banglanatak.com
www.zatang.com
www.bsmotoring.com
www.roomairconditioner.com
www.electricmela.com
www.bigwebindia.com
www.hyperoffice.com
www.allwonders.com
www.windpowerindia.com
www.virinchi.com
www.indiaelectricmarket.com
www.americaonline.com
www.rightserve.com
www.phone.com
www.software.com
www.apnatransport.com
www.dgreetings.com
www.yet2.com
www.vsnl.com
www.satyamonline.com
www.123india.com
www.hifunda.com
www.indya.com
www.indiafm.com
www.a4india.com
www.caltiger.com
www.indiainfo.com
www.mantraonline.com
www.onlysmart.com
www.indiatimes.com
www.indiabiz.com
www.indiamarkets.com
www.nazara.com
www.bharatnet.com
www.forindia.com
www.jaldi.com
www.nerdworld.com
source: the internet
Thursday, August 12, 2010
2 marks questions with answer
1.Distinguish between adaptive and non adaptive algorithms?
Adaptive routing is superior to non adaptive routing because adaptive routing may select a new route for each packet in response to change in condtion and topology of the networks.
2.what are the 3 main elements of link state routing?
1. knowledge about the neighborhood
2. sharing the information with every other network.
3. information sharing when there is a change.
3.what are the 3 main elements of distance vector routing algorithms?
• knowledge about the whole network
• routing only to neighbors
• information sharing at regular intervals.
4.differences between transport and datalink layers?
• Transports layer-it provide the service across internetwork,it can controle all three of the lowerlayer
• Data link layer-it is designed to provide its services with in single network,it can controle only the physical layer
4.what are the duties of transport layer?
• End to end delivery
• Addressing
• Realible delivery
• Flow control
• Multiplexing.
5.what is segmentation?
When the size of the date unit received from the upper layer is too long for the network layer data grams or data link frame to handle
The transport divides it into smaller unusable block . this dividing process is called segmentation.
6.explain how the TCP provides the reliaability?
• Checksum
• Duplicate data detection
• Retransmission
• Sequencing
• Timers
7.explain how TCP flow control works?
• TCP has a mechanism that guarantees that the relive buffer does not overflow the TCP receiver advertises space room in its receive buffer by including the volume of it is receive window size in the receive window field of every segment it sent to the TCP sender.
• The TCP sender is not allowed to sent more data than the receiver can receive because TCP connection are full duplex, this happens is both dir ections.
8.Define Reliability and its aspects?
• Realiable delivery of the packet means the correct delivery of the packet to the destinaction from source without a single error in the packet.
• Thereare 4 aspects of reliable delivery.
• There are 1error control
2 sequence control
3 loss control
4 duplicate
9 Wtite the difference TCP and UDP?
TCP
• Ti is a connection – oriented protocol
• Provides reliable deliver.
• Socket in TCP usually iddentified by means of 4 tuple
• Source IP address
• Source port number
• Destination IP address
• Destination port number.
UDP
• It is a connectionless protocol.
• Provides unreliable delivery.
• UTP socket is identified by means of 2 tuple.
• IP address (destination)
• Port number (destination)
10.what is a port?
Application running on different hosts communicate with TCP with the help of a concept called as ports . a port is a 16 bit unique number allocated to a particular application.
11.what is meant by well know ports ?what are the numbers?
• Well know port means they are reserved for use by well know application protocols such as HTTP and FTP. The port number ranging from 0 to 1023 are well know port numbers.
12.what is congestion and its types?
• When load on network is greater than its capacity, there is congestion of data packets. Congestion occurs because routers and switches have queues or buffers.
13.define (i)host (ii)IP?
HOST: an end user ‘s computer connection to network.in an internet each computer is B classified as a host or a router.
IP: internet protocol that define both the format of packet used on a TCP/IP internet on the mechanism for routing a packet to its destinaction.
14.List the flag used in TCP header?
TCP header contains six flags they are:
• URG
• ACK14.what is berkely soc
• PSH
• RST
• SYN
• FIN
ket and its primitives?
15.what is concatenation?
• When the size of the data unit belonging to a single session are so small that server units can fit together into single datagram or frame name , the transports protocol combines them into the a single data unit . the combined process is called concatenation.
16.what is mean by routing algorithms?
• THE algorithm that manages routing table and make the routing decisions is called routing algorithm
17.Diff between a Router and bridge?
• Routers provide link between two separate but same type LANs and are must active at the network layer
• Bridges utilize addressing protocols and can affect the flow control of a single LAN : most active at the data link layer.
18.explain Multicasting.?
• A from of addressing in which asset of computer is assigned one address , a copy of any datagram sent top then address is delivered to each of the computers in the set.
19.define subnetting?
• When we divide a network into several subnets , we have three
Levels of hierarchy
• The netid is the first level defines the site,
• The subnetid is the second level define the physical subnetwork.
• The hosted is the 3RD level defines the connections of the host to the subnetwork.
20/.defien IP addressing?
• An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally define the connection of a host or a router to the internet .
• The sender must know the IP address of the destination computer before sending a packet.
Adaptive routing is superior to non adaptive routing because adaptive routing may select a new route for each packet in response to change in condtion and topology of the networks.
2.what are the 3 main elements of link state routing?
1. knowledge about the neighborhood
2. sharing the information with every other network.
3. information sharing when there is a change.
3.what are the 3 main elements of distance vector routing algorithms?
• knowledge about the whole network
• routing only to neighbors
• information sharing at regular intervals.
4.differences between transport and datalink layers?
• Transports layer-it provide the service across internetwork,it can controle all three of the lowerlayer
• Data link layer-it is designed to provide its services with in single network,it can controle only the physical layer
4.what are the duties of transport layer?
• End to end delivery
• Addressing
• Realible delivery
• Flow control
• Multiplexing.
5.what is segmentation?
When the size of the date unit received from the upper layer is too long for the network layer data grams or data link frame to handle
The transport divides it into smaller unusable block . this dividing process is called segmentation.
6.explain how the TCP provides the reliaability?
• Checksum
• Duplicate data detection
• Retransmission
• Sequencing
• Timers
7.explain how TCP flow control works?
• TCP has a mechanism that guarantees that the relive buffer does not overflow the TCP receiver advertises space room in its receive buffer by including the volume of it is receive window size in the receive window field of every segment it sent to the TCP sender.
• The TCP sender is not allowed to sent more data than the receiver can receive because TCP connection are full duplex, this happens is both dir ections.
8.Define Reliability and its aspects?
• Realiable delivery of the packet means the correct delivery of the packet to the destinaction from source without a single error in the packet.
• Thereare 4 aspects of reliable delivery.
• There are 1error control
2 sequence control
3 loss control
4 duplicate
9 Wtite the difference TCP and UDP?
TCP
• Ti is a connection – oriented protocol
• Provides reliable deliver.
• Socket in TCP usually iddentified by means of 4 tuple
• Source IP address
• Source port number
• Destination IP address
• Destination port number.
UDP
• It is a connectionless protocol.
• Provides unreliable delivery.
• UTP socket is identified by means of 2 tuple.
• IP address (destination)
• Port number (destination)
10.what is a port?
Application running on different hosts communicate with TCP with the help of a concept called as ports . a port is a 16 bit unique number allocated to a particular application.
11.what is meant by well know ports ?what are the numbers?
• Well know port means they are reserved for use by well know application protocols such as HTTP and FTP. The port number ranging from 0 to 1023 are well know port numbers.
12.what is congestion and its types?
• When load on network is greater than its capacity, there is congestion of data packets. Congestion occurs because routers and switches have queues or buffers.
13.define (i)host (ii)IP?
HOST: an end user ‘s computer connection to network.in an internet each computer is B classified as a host or a router.
IP: internet protocol that define both the format of packet used on a TCP/IP internet on the mechanism for routing a packet to its destinaction.
14.List the flag used in TCP header?
TCP header contains six flags they are:
• URG
• ACK14.what is berkely soc
• PSH
• RST
• SYN
• FIN
ket and its primitives?
15.what is concatenation?
• When the size of the data unit belonging to a single session are so small that server units can fit together into single datagram or frame name , the transports protocol combines them into the a single data unit . the combined process is called concatenation.
16.what is mean by routing algorithms?
• THE algorithm that manages routing table and make the routing decisions is called routing algorithm
17.Diff between a Router and bridge?
• Routers provide link between two separate but same type LANs and are must active at the network layer
• Bridges utilize addressing protocols and can affect the flow control of a single LAN : most active at the data link layer.
18.explain Multicasting.?
• A from of addressing in which asset of computer is assigned one address , a copy of any datagram sent top then address is delivered to each of the computers in the set.
19.define subnetting?
• When we divide a network into several subnets , we have three
Levels of hierarchy
• The netid is the first level defines the site,
• The subnetid is the second level define the physical subnetwork.
• The hosted is the 3RD level defines the connections of the host to the subnetwork.
20/.defien IP addressing?
• An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally define the connection of a host or a router to the internet .
• The sender must know the IP address of the destination computer before sending a packet.
Wednesday, August 11, 2010
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TCP AND UDP
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol). TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, a connection can be made from client to server, and from then on any data can be sent along that connection.
Reliable - when you send a message along a TCP socket, you know it will get there unless the connection fails completely. If it gets lost along the way, the server will re-request the lost part. This means complete integrity, things don't get corrupted.
Ordered - if you send two messages along a connection, one after the other, you know the first message will get there first. You don't have to worry about data arriving in the wrong order.
Heavyweight - when the low level parts of the TCP "stream" arrive in the wrong order, resend requests have to be sent, and all the out of sequence parts have to be put back together, so requires a bit of work to piece together.
UDP(User Datagram Protocol). A simpler message-based connectionless protocol. With UDP you send messages(packets) across the network in chunks.
Unreliable - When you send a message, you don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost on the way.
Not ordered - If you send two messages out, you don't know what order they'll arrive in.
Lightweight - No ordering of messages, no tracking connections, etc. It's just fire and forget! This means it's a lot quicker, and the network card / OS have to do very little work to translate the data back from the packets.
TCP is a stateless protocol. It forgets after communication. Instantly message will be sent and immediately cleared.
UDP is a stated protocol. It maintains all the information until the communication is end or complete.
Reliable - when you send a message along a TCP socket, you know it will get there unless the connection fails completely. If it gets lost along the way, the server will re-request the lost part. This means complete integrity, things don't get corrupted.
Ordered - if you send two messages along a connection, one after the other, you know the first message will get there first. You don't have to worry about data arriving in the wrong order.
Heavyweight - when the low level parts of the TCP "stream" arrive in the wrong order, resend requests have to be sent, and all the out of sequence parts have to be put back together, so requires a bit of work to piece together.
UDP(User Datagram Protocol). A simpler message-based connectionless protocol. With UDP you send messages(packets) across the network in chunks.
Unreliable - When you send a message, you don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost on the way.
Not ordered - If you send two messages out, you don't know what order they'll arrive in.
Lightweight - No ordering of messages, no tracking connections, etc. It's just fire and forget! This means it's a lot quicker, and the network card / OS have to do very little work to translate the data back from the packets.
TCP is a stateless protocol. It forgets after communication. Instantly message will be sent and immediately cleared.
UDP is a stated protocol. It maintains all the information until the communication is end or complete.
SOCKET AND UDP
A socket is one of the most fundamental technologies of computer networking. Sockets allow applications to communicate using standard mechanisms built into network hardware and operating systems. Although network software may seem to be a relatively new "Web" phenomenon, socket technology actually has been employed for roughly two decades.
Software applications that rely on the Internet and other computer networks continue to grow in popularity. Many of today's most popular software packages -- including Web browsers, instant messaging applications and peer to peer file sharing systems -- rely on sockets.
Point-to-Point Communication
In a nutshell, a socket represents a single connection between exactly two pieces of software. More than two pieces of software can communicate in client/server or distributed systems (for example, many Web browsers can simultaneously communicate with a single Web server) but multiple sockets are required to do this. Socket-based software usually runs on two separate computers on the network, but sockets can also be used to communicate locally (interprocess) on a single computer. Sockets are bidirectional, meaning that either side of the connection is capable of both sending and receiving data. Sometimes the one application that initiates communication is termed the client and the other application the server, but this terminology leads to confusion in non-client/server systems and should generally be avoided.
Libraries
Programmers access sockets using code libraries packaged with the operating system. Several libraries that implement standard application programming interfaces (APIs) exist. The first mainstream package - the Berkeley Socket Library is still widely in use on UNIX® systems. Another very common API is the Windows Sockets (Winsock) library for Microsoft operating systems. Relative to other network programming technologies, socket APIs are quite mature: Winsock has been in use since 1993 and Berkeley sockets since 1982.
Socket Interface Types
Socket interfaces can be divided into three categories. Perhaps the most commonly-used type, the stream socket, implements "connection-oriented" semantics. Essentially, a "stream" requires that the two communicating parties first establish a socket connection, after which any data passed through that connection will be guaranteed to arrive in the same order in which it was sent.
Datagram sockets offer "connection-less" semantics. With datagrams, connections are implicit rather than explicit as with streams. Either party simply sends datagrams as needed and waits for the other to respond; messages can be lost in transmission or received out of order, but it is the application's responsibility and not the socket's to deal with these problems. Implementing datagram sockets can give some applications a performance boost and additional flexibility compared to using stream sockets, justifying their use in some situations.
The third type of socket -- the so-called raw socket -- bypasses the library's built-in support for standard protocols like TCP and UDP. Raw sockets are used for custom low-level protocol development.
Addresses and Ports
Today, sockets are typically used in conjunction with the Internet protocols -- Internet Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Libraries implementing sockets for Internet Protocol use TCP for streams, UDP for datagrams, and IP itself for raw sockets.
To communicate over the Internet, IP socket libraries use the IP address to identify specific computers. Many parts of the Internet work with naming services, so that the users and socket programmers can work with computers by name (e.g., "thiscomputer.compnetworking.about.com") instead of by address (e.g., 208.185.127.40). Stream and datagram sockets also use IP port numbers to distinguish multiple applications from each other. For example, Web browsers on the Internet know to use port 80 as the default for socket communications with Web servers.
Socket Programming and You
Traditionally, sockets have been of interest mainly to computer programmers. But as new networking applications emerge, end users are becoming increasingly network-savvy. Many Web surfers, for example, now know that some addresses in the browser look like
http://206.35.113.28:8080/
where 8080 is the port number being used by that socket. The socket APIs are relatively small and simple. Many of the functions are similar to those used in file input/output routines such as read(), write(), and close(). The actual function calls to use depend on the programming language and socket library chosen.
UDP
Definition: UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a simple OSI transport layer protocol for client/server network applications based on Internet Protocol (IP). UDP is the main alternative to TCP and one of the oldest network protocols in existence, introduced in 1980. UDP is often used in videoconferencing applications or computer games specially tuned for real-time performance. To achieve higher performance, the protocol allows individual packets to be dropped (with no retries) and UDP packets to be received in a different order than they were sent as dictated by the application.
UDP network traffic is organized in the form of datagrams. A datagram comprises one message unit. The first eight (8) bytes of a datagram contain header information and the remaining bytes contain message data.
A UDP datagram header consists of four (4) fields of two bytes each:
•source port number
•destination port number
•datagram size
•checksum
UDP port numbers allow different applications to maintain their own channels for data similar to TCP. UDP port headers are two bytes long; therefore, valid UDP port numbers range from 0 to 65535.
The UDP datagram size is a count of the total number of bytes contained in header and data sections. As the header length is a fixed size, this field effectively tracks the length of the variable-sized data portion (sometimes called payload). The size of datagrams varies depending on the operating environment but has a maximum of 65535 bytes.UDP checksums protect message data from tampering. The checksum value represents an encoding of the datagram data calculated first by the sender and later by the receiver. Should an individual datagram be tampered with or get corrupted during transmission, the UDP protocol detects a checksum calculation mismatch. In UDP, checksumming is optional as opposed to TCP where checksums are mandatory.
Software applications that rely on the Internet and other computer networks continue to grow in popularity. Many of today's most popular software packages -- including Web browsers, instant messaging applications and peer to peer file sharing systems -- rely on sockets.
Point-to-Point Communication
In a nutshell, a socket represents a single connection between exactly two pieces of software. More than two pieces of software can communicate in client/server or distributed systems (for example, many Web browsers can simultaneously communicate with a single Web server) but multiple sockets are required to do this. Socket-based software usually runs on two separate computers on the network, but sockets can also be used to communicate locally (interprocess) on a single computer. Sockets are bidirectional, meaning that either side of the connection is capable of both sending and receiving data. Sometimes the one application that initiates communication is termed the client and the other application the server, but this terminology leads to confusion in non-client/server systems and should generally be avoided.
Libraries
Programmers access sockets using code libraries packaged with the operating system. Several libraries that implement standard application programming interfaces (APIs) exist. The first mainstream package - the Berkeley Socket Library is still widely in use on UNIX® systems. Another very common API is the Windows Sockets (Winsock) library for Microsoft operating systems. Relative to other network programming technologies, socket APIs are quite mature: Winsock has been in use since 1993 and Berkeley sockets since 1982.
Socket Interface Types
Socket interfaces can be divided into three categories. Perhaps the most commonly-used type, the stream socket, implements "connection-oriented" semantics. Essentially, a "stream" requires that the two communicating parties first establish a socket connection, after which any data passed through that connection will be guaranteed to arrive in the same order in which it was sent.
Datagram sockets offer "connection-less" semantics. With datagrams, connections are implicit rather than explicit as with streams. Either party simply sends datagrams as needed and waits for the other to respond; messages can be lost in transmission or received out of order, but it is the application's responsibility and not the socket's to deal with these problems. Implementing datagram sockets can give some applications a performance boost and additional flexibility compared to using stream sockets, justifying their use in some situations.
The third type of socket -- the so-called raw socket -- bypasses the library's built-in support for standard protocols like TCP and UDP. Raw sockets are used for custom low-level protocol development.
Addresses and Ports
Today, sockets are typically used in conjunction with the Internet protocols -- Internet Protocol, Transmission Control Protocol, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Libraries implementing sockets for Internet Protocol use TCP for streams, UDP for datagrams, and IP itself for raw sockets.
To communicate over the Internet, IP socket libraries use the IP address to identify specific computers. Many parts of the Internet work with naming services, so that the users and socket programmers can work with computers by name (e.g., "thiscomputer.compnetworking.about.com") instead of by address (e.g., 208.185.127.40). Stream and datagram sockets also use IP port numbers to distinguish multiple applications from each other. For example, Web browsers on the Internet know to use port 80 as the default for socket communications with Web servers.
Socket Programming and You
Traditionally, sockets have been of interest mainly to computer programmers. But as new networking applications emerge, end users are becoming increasingly network-savvy. Many Web surfers, for example, now know that some addresses in the browser look like
http://206.35.113.28:8080/
where 8080 is the port number being used by that socket. The socket APIs are relatively small and simple. Many of the functions are similar to those used in file input/output routines such as read(), write(), and close(). The actual function calls to use depend on the programming language and socket library chosen.
UDP
Definition: UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a simple OSI transport layer protocol for client/server network applications based on Internet Protocol (IP). UDP is the main alternative to TCP and one of the oldest network protocols in existence, introduced in 1980. UDP is often used in videoconferencing applications or computer games specially tuned for real-time performance. To achieve higher performance, the protocol allows individual packets to be dropped (with no retries) and UDP packets to be received in a different order than they were sent as dictated by the application.
UDP network traffic is organized in the form of datagrams. A datagram comprises one message unit. The first eight (8) bytes of a datagram contain header information and the remaining bytes contain message data.
A UDP datagram header consists of four (4) fields of two bytes each:
•source port number
•destination port number
•datagram size
•checksum
UDP port numbers allow different applications to maintain their own channels for data similar to TCP. UDP port headers are two bytes long; therefore, valid UDP port numbers range from 0 to 65535.
The UDP datagram size is a count of the total number of bytes contained in header and data sections. As the header length is a fixed size, this field effectively tracks the length of the variable-sized data portion (sometimes called payload). The size of datagrams varies depending on the operating environment but has a maximum of 65535 bytes.UDP checksums protect message data from tampering. The checksum value represents an encoding of the datagram data calculated first by the sender and later by the receiver. Should an individual datagram be tampered with or get corrupted during transmission, the UDP protocol detects a checksum calculation mismatch. In UDP, checksumming is optional as opposed to TCP where checksums are mandatory.
APPLICATION LEVEL PROTOCOL
DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
Every computer on the internet is assigned a unique number called an IP address, and it works kind of like a street address in telling other computers where it's located.
When you go to a website, you're actually accessing the website saved on some company's computer somewhere.
You type a domain name, like "google.com", into your browser to get to that site. DNS is the system that lets your computer figure out which IP address goes with "google.com" so your computer can talk to the computer that runs that website. DNS is like the yellow pages for IP addresses, you look up a name and it gives you back their address.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource participating in the Internet. It associates various information with domain names assigned to such participants. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices world-wide. An often used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses.
EXAMPLE
www.example.com translates to the addresses 192.0.32.10 (IPv4) and 2620:0:2d0:200::10 (IPv6).
The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet users in a meaningful way, independent of each user's physical location. Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and Internet contact information can remain consistent and constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements change or the participant uses a mobile device.
Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or 2001:db8:1f70::999:de8:7648:6e8 (IPv6).
People take advantage of this when they recite meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without having to know how the machine will actually locate them.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
Hypertext transfer protocol is a method of transmitting the information on the web. HTTP basically publishes and retrieves the HTTP pages on the World Wide Web. HTTP is a language that is used to communicate between the browser and web server. The information that is transferred using HTTP can be plain text, audio, video, images, and hypertext. HTTP is a request/response protocol between the client and server. Many proxies, tunnels, and gateways can be existing between the web browser (client) and server (web server). An HTTP client initializes a request by establishing a TCP connection to a particular port on the remote host (typically 80 or 8080). An HTTP server listens to that port and receives a request message from the client. Upon receiving the request, server sends back 200 OK messages, its own message, an error message or other message.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
In computing, e-mail clients such as (MS outlook, outlook express and thunderbird) use Post office Protocol to retreive emails from the remote server over the TCP/IP connection. Nearly all the users of the Internet service providers use POP 3 in the email clients to retrieve the emails from the email servers. Most email applications use POP protocol.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a protocol that is used to send the email messages between the servers. Most email systems and email clients use the SMTP protocol to send messages to one server to another. In configuring an email application, you need to configure POP, SMTP and IMAP protocols in your email software. SMTP is a simple, text based protocol and one or more recipient of the message is specified and then the message is transferred. SMTP connection is easily tested by the Telnet utility. SMTP uses the by default TCP port number 25
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP or file transfer protocol is used to transfer (upload/download) data from one computer to another over the internet or through or computer network. FTP is a most commonly communication protocol for transferring the files over the internet. Typically, there are two computers are involved in the transferring the files a server and a client. The client computer that is running FTP client software such as Cuteftp and AceFTP etc initiates a connection with the remote computer (server). After successfully connected with the server, the client computer can perform a number of the operations like downloading the files, uploading, renaming and deleting the files, creating the new folders etc. Virtually operating system supports FTP protocols.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
The Internet Message Access Protocol known as IMAP is an application layer protocol that is used to access to access the emails on the remote servers. POP3 and IMAP are the two most commonly used email retrieval protocols. Most of the email clients such as outlook express, thunderbird and MS outlooks support POP3 and IMAP. The email messages are generally stored on the email server and the users generally retreive these messages whether by the web browser or email clients. IMAP is generally used in the large networks. IMAP allows users to access their messages instantly on their systems.
Every computer on the internet is assigned a unique number called an IP address, and it works kind of like a street address in telling other computers where it's located.
When you go to a website, you're actually accessing the website saved on some company's computer somewhere.
You type a domain name, like "google.com", into your browser to get to that site. DNS is the system that lets your computer figure out which IP address goes with "google.com" so your computer can talk to the computer that runs that website. DNS is like the yellow pages for IP addresses, you look up a name and it gives you back their address.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource participating in the Internet. It associates various information with domain names assigned to such participants. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices world-wide. An often used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses.
EXAMPLE
www.example.com translates to the addresses 192.0.32.10 (IPv4) and 2620:0:2d0:200::10 (IPv6).
The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet users in a meaningful way, independent of each user's physical location. Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and Internet contact information can remain consistent and constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements change or the participant uses a mobile device.
Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or 2001:db8:1f70::999:de8:7648:6e8 (IPv6).
People take advantage of this when they recite meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without having to know how the machine will actually locate them.
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
Hypertext transfer protocol is a method of transmitting the information on the web. HTTP basically publishes and retrieves the HTTP pages on the World Wide Web. HTTP is a language that is used to communicate between the browser and web server. The information that is transferred using HTTP can be plain text, audio, video, images, and hypertext. HTTP is a request/response protocol between the client and server. Many proxies, tunnels, and gateways can be existing between the web browser (client) and server (web server). An HTTP client initializes a request by establishing a TCP connection to a particular port on the remote host (typically 80 or 8080). An HTTP server listens to that port and receives a request message from the client. Upon receiving the request, server sends back 200 OK messages, its own message, an error message or other message.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
In computing, e-mail clients such as (MS outlook, outlook express and thunderbird) use Post office Protocol to retreive emails from the remote server over the TCP/IP connection. Nearly all the users of the Internet service providers use POP 3 in the email clients to retrieve the emails from the email servers. Most email applications use POP protocol.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a protocol that is used to send the email messages between the servers. Most email systems and email clients use the SMTP protocol to send messages to one server to another. In configuring an email application, you need to configure POP, SMTP and IMAP protocols in your email software. SMTP is a simple, text based protocol and one or more recipient of the message is specified and then the message is transferred. SMTP connection is easily tested by the Telnet utility. SMTP uses the by default TCP port number 25
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP or file transfer protocol is used to transfer (upload/download) data from one computer to another over the internet or through or computer network. FTP is a most commonly communication protocol for transferring the files over the internet. Typically, there are two computers are involved in the transferring the files a server and a client. The client computer that is running FTP client software such as Cuteftp and AceFTP etc initiates a connection with the remote computer (server). After successfully connected with the server, the client computer can perform a number of the operations like downloading the files, uploading, renaming and deleting the files, creating the new folders etc. Virtually operating system supports FTP protocols.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
The Internet Message Access Protocol known as IMAP is an application layer protocol that is used to access to access the emails on the remote servers. POP3 and IMAP are the two most commonly used email retrieval protocols. Most of the email clients such as outlook express, thunderbird and MS outlooks support POP3 and IMAP. The email messages are generally stored on the email server and the users generally retreive these messages whether by the web browser or email clients. IMAP is generally used in the large networks. IMAP allows users to access their messages instantly on their systems.
MULTIPLEXING and DEMULTIPLEXING
General multiplexing - demultiplexing scheme: the ν input lines-channels are multiplexed into a single fast line. The demultiplexer receives the multiplexed data stream and extracts the original channels to be transferred.
Multiplex-techniques
Circuit mode(constant bandwidth)
• TDM • FDM • SDM
• Polarization multiplexing
• Spatial multiplexing (MIMO)
Statistical multiplexing(variable bandwidth)
Packet mode • Dynamic TDM
• FHSS • DSSS
• OFDMA • SC-FDM • MC-SS
In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing (also known as muxing) is a process where multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource.
For example, in telecommunications, several phone calls may be transferred using one wire. It originated in telegraphy, and is now widely applied in communications.
The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side.
A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX).Inverse multiplexing (IMUX) has the opposite aim as multiplexing, namely to break one data stream into several streams, transfer them simultaneously over several communication channels, and recreate the original data stream.
1 Types of multiplexing
1.1 Space-division multiplexing
1.2 Frequency-division multiplexing
1.3 Time-division multiplexing
1.4 Code-division multiplexing
Types of multiplexing
The group of multiplexing technologies may be divided into several types, all of which have significant variations:[1] space-division multiplexing (SDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and code division multiplexing (CDM).Variable bit rate digital bit streams may be transferred efficiently over a fixed bandwidth channel by means of statistical multiplexing, for example packet mode communication. Packet mode communication is an asynchronous mode time-domain multiplexing which resembles time-division multiplexing.
Digital bit streams can be transferred over an analog channel by means of code-division multiplexing (CDM) techniques such as frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).In wireless communications, multiplexing can also be accomplished through alternating polarization (horizontal/vertical or clockwise/counterclockwise) on each adjacent channel and satellite, or through phased multi-antenna array combined with a Multiple-input multiple-output communications (MIMO) scheme.
Space-division multiplexing
In wired communication, space-division multiplexing simply implies different point-to-point wires for different channels. One example is an analogue stereo audio cable, with one pair of wires for the left channel and another for the right channel. Another example is a switched star network such as the analog telephone access network (although inside the telephone exchange or between the exchanges, other multiplexing techniques are typically employed) or a switched Ethernet network.
A third example is a mesh network. Wired space-division multiplexing is typically not considered as multiplexing.In wireless communication, space-division multiplexing is achieved by multiple antenna elements forming a phased array antenna. Examples are multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO), single-input and multiple-output (SIMO) and multiple-input and single-output (MISO) multiplexing. For example, a IEEE 802.11n wireless router with N antennas makes it possible to communicate with N multiplexed channels, each with a peak bit rate of 54 Mbit/s, thus increasing the total peak bit rate with a factor N. Different antennas would give different multi-path propagation (echo) signatures, making it possible for digital signal processing techniques to separate different signals from each other. These techniques may also be utilized for space diversity (improved robustness to fading) or beamforming (improved selectivity) rather than multiplexing.
Frequency-division multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM): The spectrums of each input signal are swifted in several distinct frequency ranges.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an analog technology. FDM achieves the combining of several digital signals into one medium by sending signals in several distinct frequency ranges over that medium.
One of FDM's most common applications is cable television. Only one cable reaches a customer's home but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all subscribers. Receivers must tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the desired signal.A variant technology, called wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used in optical communications.
Time-division multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital technology. TDM involves sequencing groups of a few bits or bytes from each individual input stream, one after the other, and in such a way that they can be associated with the appropriate receiver. If done sufficiently and quickly, the receiving devices will not detect that some of the circuit time was used to serve another logical communication path.
Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a central computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 bps, so rather than acquire four individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a pair of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 bps modems and one dedicated analog communications circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are also installed.
Code-division multiplexing
Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique in which each channel transmits its bits as a coded channel-specific sequence of pulses. This coded transmission typically is accomplished by transmitting a unique time-dependent series of short pulses, which are placed within chip times within the larger bit time. All channels, each with a different code, can be transmitted on the same fiber and asynchronously demultiplexed. Other widely used multiple access techniques are Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Code Division Multiplex techniques are used as an access technology, namely Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), in Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) standard for the third generation (3G) mobile communication identified by the ITU. Another important application of the CDMA is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
However, the term Code Division Multiple access (CDMA) is also widely used to refer to a group of specific implementations of CDMA defined by Qualcomm for use in digital cellular telephony, which include IS-95 and IS-2000. The two different uses of this term can be confusing. Actually, CDMA (the Qualcomm standard) and UMTS have been competing for adoption in many markets.
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INTERNEL TEST II QUESTIONS
KAVERY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
5TH SEMESTER
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
3RD YEAR A & B SECTIONS
10*2=20
PART A
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1.Distinguish between adaptive and non adaptive algorithms?
2.what are the 3 main elements of link state routing?
3.what are the 3 main elements of distance vector routing algorithms?
4.differences between transport and datalink layers?
4.what are the duties of transport layer?
5.what is segmentation?
6.explain how the TCP provides the relaiability?
7.explain how TCP flow control works?
8.Define Reliability and its aspects?
9.diff between TCP and UDP?
10.what is a port?
11.what is meant by well know ports ?what are the numbers?
12.what is congestion and its types?
13.define (i)host (ii)IP?
14.List the flag used in TCP header?
14.what is berkely socket and its primitives?
15.what is concatenation?
16.what is mean by routing algorithms?
17.Diff between a Router and bridge?
18.explain Multicasting.?
19.define subnetting?
20/.defien IP addressing?
PART B
3*10=30
1.Explain Link State Routing Algoritms with Suitable examples?
2.Discuss briefly about SOCKET and UDP?
3.Discuss multiplexing and demultiplexing in connectionless and connection oriented networks?
4.explain application level protocals?
5TH SEMESTER
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
3RD YEAR A & B SECTIONS
10*2=20
PART A
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1.Distinguish between adaptive and non adaptive algorithms?
2.what are the 3 main elements of link state routing?
3.what are the 3 main elements of distance vector routing algorithms?
4.differences between transport and datalink layers?
4.what are the duties of transport layer?
5.what is segmentation?
6.explain how the TCP provides the relaiability?
7.explain how TCP flow control works?
8.Define Reliability and its aspects?
9.diff between TCP and UDP?
10.what is a port?
11.what is meant by well know ports ?what are the numbers?
12.what is congestion and its types?
13.define (i)host (ii)IP?
14.List the flag used in TCP header?
14.what is berkely socket and its primitives?
15.what is concatenation?
16.what is mean by routing algorithms?
17.Diff between a Router and bridge?
18.explain Multicasting.?
19.define subnetting?
20/.defien IP addressing?
PART B
3*10=30
1.Explain Link State Routing Algoritms with Suitable examples?
2.Discuss briefly about SOCKET and UDP?
3.Discuss multiplexing and demultiplexing in connectionless and connection oriented networks?
4.explain application level protocals?
Saturday, August 7, 2010
UDP-CLIENT
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
class UDPClient
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
BufferedReader inFromUser =
new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
DatagramSocket clientSocket = new DatagramSocket();
InetAddress IPAddress = InetAddress.getByName("localhost");
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
String sentence = inFromUser.readLine();
sendData = sentence.getBytes();
DatagramPacket sendPacket = new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress, 9876);
clientSocket.send(sendPacket);
DatagramPacket receivePacket = new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
clientSocket.receive(receivePacket);
String modifiedSentence = new String(receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("FROM SERVER:" + modifiedSentence);
clientSocket.close();
}
}
import java.io.*;
class UDPClient
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
BufferedReader inFromUser =
new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
DatagramSocket clientSocket = new DatagramSocket();
InetAddress IPAddress = InetAddress.getByName("localhost");
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
String sentence = inFromUser.readLine();
sendData = sentence.getBytes();
DatagramPacket sendPacket = new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress, 9876);
clientSocket.send(sendPacket);
DatagramPacket receivePacket = new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
clientSocket.receive(receivePacket);
String modifiedSentence = new String(receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("FROM SERVER:" + modifiedSentence);
clientSocket.close();
}
}
UDP-SERVER
import java.net.*;
class UDPServer
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new DatagramSocket(9876);
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
while(true)
{
DatagramPacket receivePacket = new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
serverSocket.receive(receivePacket);
String sentence = new String( receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("RECEIVED: " + sentence);
InetAddress IPAddress = receivePacket.getAddress();
int port = receivePacket.getPort();
String capitalizedSentence = sentence.toUpperCase();
sendData = capitalizedSentence.getBytes();
DatagramPacket sendPacket =
new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress, port);
serverSocket.send(sendPacket);
}
}
}
class UDPServer
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception
{
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new DatagramSocket(9876);
byte[] receiveData = new byte[1024];
byte[] sendData = new byte[1024];
while(true)
{
DatagramPacket receivePacket = new DatagramPacket(receiveData, receiveData.length);
serverSocket.receive(receivePacket);
String sentence = new String( receivePacket.getData());
System.out.println("RECEIVED: " + sentence);
InetAddress IPAddress = receivePacket.getAddress();
int port = receivePacket.getPort();
String capitalizedSentence = sentence.toUpperCase();
sendData = capitalizedSentence.getBytes();
DatagramPacket sendPacket =
new DatagramPacket(sendData, sendData.length, IPAddress, port);
serverSocket.send(sendPacket);
}
}
}
SOCKET PROGRAMMING-SERVER ECHO
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.String;
public class serverecho
{
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
ServerSocket ss = new ServerSocket(1234);
Socket s = ss.accept();
DataInputStream in = new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream out = new DataOutputStream(s.getOutputStream());
String str;
System.out.println("\n server side");
while (true)
{
str = in.readLine();
out.writeBytes(str + "\n");
System.out.println("msg from client");
System.out.println(str + "\n");
}
}
}
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.String;
public class serverecho
{
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
ServerSocket ss = new ServerSocket(1234);
Socket s = ss.accept();
DataInputStream in = new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream out = new DataOutputStream(s.getOutputStream());
String str;
System.out.println("\n server side");
while (true)
{
str = in.readLine();
out.writeBytes(str + "\n");
System.out.println("msg from client");
System.out.println(str + "\n");
}
}
}
SOCKET PROGRAMMING-CLIENT ECHO
*****SOCKET-C****
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.String;
public class clientecho1
{
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
DataInputStream in=new DataInputStream(System.in);
Socket s=new Socket("localhost",1234);
DataInputStream inecho=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream out=new DataOutputStream(s.getOutputStream());
String str;
System.out.println("client side");
System.out.println("\n type exit to quit");
System.out.println("\n enter the client msg:");
while((str=in.readLine())!=null)
{
out.writeBytes(str+"\n");
if(str.equals("exit"))
{
out.writeBytes("\n client terminated");
break;
}
else
{
System.out.println("echo from server:");
System.out.println(inecho.readLine());
System.out.println("\n enter client msg:");
}
}
}
}
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
import java.lang.String;
public class clientecho1
{
public static void main(String args[])throws Exception
{
DataInputStream in=new DataInputStream(System.in);
Socket s=new Socket("localhost",1234);
DataInputStream inecho=new DataInputStream(s.getInputStream());
DataOutputStream out=new DataOutputStream(s.getOutputStream());
String str;
System.out.println("client side");
System.out.println("\n type exit to quit");
System.out.println("\n enter the client msg:");
while((str=in.readLine())!=null)
{
out.writeBytes(str+"\n");
if(str.equals("exit"))
{
out.writeBytes("\n client terminated");
break;
}
else
{
System.out.println("echo from server:");
System.out.println(inecho.readLine());
System.out.println("\n enter client msg:");
}
}
}
}
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